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THE 



FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE LY SELF-TEACHING. 



DESIGNED TO CULTIVATE THE OBSEEVING AND 
EEASONING POWEES OF CHILDEEN. 



1> 



ELIZA A. YOUMANS. 



/■ 



n 



fi 



C 



I^BW EDITIONS, THOROJJGELY EEVISED, 



NEW YORK-'^^^^WASvAi^<^'!^ 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

1, 3, AND 5 BOND STEEET. 

1883. 



COPYEIGHT BY 

APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1883. 






PEEFAOE 



This little book has a twofold claim upon those 
concerned in the work of education. 

In the first place, it introduces the beginner to 
the study of Botany in the only way it can be prop- 
erly done — by the direct observation of vegetable 
forms. The pupil is told very little, and from the 
beginning, throughout, he is sent to the plant to get 
his knowledge of the plant. The book is designed 
to help him in this work, never to supersede it. In- 
stead of memorizing the statements of others, he 
studies the things themselves. The true basis of a 
knowledge of Botany is that familiarity with the 
actual characters of plants, which can only be ob- 
tained by direct and habitual inspection of them. 
The beginner should therefore commence with the 
actual specimens, and learn to distinguish those ex- 
ternal characters which lie open to observation; the 
knowledge of which leads naturally to that arrange- 
ment by related attributes which constitutes classifi- 
cation. 



4 PREFACE. 

But the present book lias a still stronger claim to 
attention ; it develops a new method of stndy which 
is designed to correct that which is confessedly the 
deepest defect of our current education. This defect 
is the almost total lack of any systematic cultivation 
of the observing powers. Although all real knowl- 
edge begins in attention to things^ and consists in the 
discrimination and comparison of the likenesses and 
differences among objects ; yet, strange to say, in our 
vaunted system of instruction there is no provision 
for the regular training of the perceptive faculties. 
That which should be first and fundamental is hardly 
attended to at all. We train in mathematics, and 
cram the contents of books, but do little to exercise 
the mind upon the realities of ]^ature, or to make it 
alert, sensitive, and intelligent, in respect to the order 
of the surrounding world. 

Something, indeed, has been done in the way of 
object-teaching, although but little that is satisfactory. 
These exercises are notoriously loose, desultory, inco- 
herent, and superficial, and hardly deserve the name 
of mental training. What is wanted is, that object- 
studies shall become more close and methodic, and 
that the observations shall be wrought into connected 
and organized knowledge. It is the merit of Botany 
that, beyond all other studies, it is suited to the at- 
tainment of this end. Plants furnish abundant and 
ever-varying materials for ol)servation. The element- 



PREFACE. 5 

ary facts of Botany are so simple that their study 
can be commenced in early childhood, and so numer- 
ous as to sustain a prolonged course of observation. 
From the most rudimentary facts the pupil may pro- 
ceed gradually to the more complex ; from the con- 
crete to the abstract ; from observation to the truths 
resting upon observation, in a natural order of ascent, 
as required by the laws of mental growth. The 
means are thus furnished for organizing object-teach- 
ing into a systematic method, so tliat it may be pur- 
sued continuously through a course of successively 
higher and more comprehensive exercises. Carried 
out in this way, Botany is capable of doing for the 
observing powers of the mind what mathematics does 
for its reasoning powers. 

Moreover, accuracy of observation requires accu- 
racy of description ; precision of thought implies pre- 
cision in the use of language. Here, again, Botany 
has superior advantages. Its vocabulary is more copi- 
ous, precise, and well settled than that of any other 
of the natural sciences ; it is thus unrivaled in the 
scope it offers for the cultivation of the descriptive 
powers. 

On purely mental grounds, therefore, and as a 
means of attaining the most needed of educational 
reforms. Botany has a claim to be admitted as a 
fourth fundamental branch of common-school studies ; 
and the hope of contributing something to this end 



6 PREFACE. 

has been the author's main incitement in the prepara- 
tion of this rudimentary work. 

It is needful here to state that the method of in- 
struction developed in these pages is no mere educa- 
tional novelty; it was tested and its fitness for the 
end proposed shown in practice by Prof. J. S. Hen- 
slow, of Cambridge, England. My attention was first 
drawn to it as I was looking about in the educational 
department of the South Kensington Museum, in 
London. In a show-case of botanical specimens, I 
noticed some slates covered with childish handwrit- 
ing, which proved to be illustrations of a method of 
teaching Botany to the young. They were furnished 
by Prof. Henslow for the International Exhibition of 
1851. He died without publishing his method, but 
not without having subjected it to thorough practi- 
cal trial. He had gathered together a class of poor 
country cliildren, in the parish where he officiated as 
clergyman, and taught them Botany by a plan simi- 
lar to the present, though less simplified. The re- 
sults of this experiment have been given to the public 
by Dr. J. D. Hooker, Superintendent of the Botan- 
ical Gardens at Kew, who was summoned to give 
evidence upon the subject before a Parliamentary 
Commission on Education. 

The following interesting passages from his testi- 
mony will give an idea of Prof. Henslow's method 
of proceeding and its results : 



PREFACE. 



Question. Have you ever turned your attention at all to the 
possibility of teaching Botany to boys in classes at school ? 

Answer. I have thought that it might be done very easily; 
that this deficiency might be easily remedied. 

Q. What are your ideas on the subject? 

A. My own ideas are chiefly drawn from the experience of 
my father-in-law, the late Prof. Henslow, Professor of Botany 
at Cambridge. He introduced Botany into one of the lowest 
possible class of schools — that of village laborers' children in a 
remote part of Suffolk. 

Q. Perhaps you will have the goodness to tell us the system 
he pursued? 

A. It was an entirely voluntary system. He offered to en- 
roll the school-children in a class to be taught Botany once a 
week. The number of children in the class was limited, I think, 
to forty-two. As his parish contained only one thousand in- 
habitants, there never were, I suppose, the full forty-two chil- 
dren in the class ; their ages varied from about eight years old 
to about fourteen or fifteen. The class mostly consisted of 
girls. ... He required that, before they were enrolled in the 
class, they should be able to spell a few elementary botanical 
terms, including some of the most difiicult to spell, and, those 
that were the most essential to begin with. Those who brought 
proof that they could do this were put into the third class ; then 
they were taught once a week, by himself generally, for an hour 
or an hour and a hialf, sometimes for two hours (for they were 
exceedingly fond of it). 

Q. Did he use to take tliem out in the country, or was it 
simply lessons in the school? 

A. He left them to collect for themselves ; but he visited 
his parish daily, when the children used to come up to him, 
and bring the plants they had collected; so that the lessons 
went on all the week round. There was only one day in the 
week on which definite instruction was given to the class; but 
on Sunday afternoon he used to allow the senior class, and 
those who got marks at the examinations, to attend at his 
house. . . . 

Q. Did he find any difficulty in teaching this subject in class ? 



8 PREFACE. 

A. N'one whatever ; less than he would have had in dealing 
with almost any other subject. 

Q. Do you know in what way he taught it ? did he illus- 
trate it? 

A, Invariably ; he made it practical. He made it an ob- 
jective study. The children were taught to know the plants, 
and to pull them to pieces ; to give their proper names to the 
parts; to indicate the relations of the parts to one another; 
and to find out the relation of one plant to another by the 
knowledge thus obtained. 

Q. They were children, you say, generally from eight to 
twelve? 

A, Yes, and up to fourteen. 

Q, And they learned it readily? 

A, Eeadily and voluntarily, entirely. 

Q. And were interested it ? 

A, Extremely interested in it. They were exceedingly fond 
of it. 

Q. Do you happen to know whether Prof. Henslow thought 
that the study of Botany developed the faculties of the mind 
— that it taught these children to think? and do you know 
w^hether he perceived any improvement in their mental facul- 
ties from that ? 

A. Yes ; he used to think it was the most important agent 
that could be employed for cultivating their faculties of obser- 
vation, and for strengthening their reasoning powers. 

Q. He really thought that he had arrived at a practical re- 
sult ? 

A. Undoubtedly; and so did every one who visited the 
school or the parish. 

Q. They were children of quite the lower class? 

A. The laboring agricultural class. 

Q, And in other branches receiving the most elementary 
instruction ? 

A. Yes. 

Q, And Prof. Henslow thought that their minds w^ere more 
developed ; that they were become more reasoning beings, from 
having this study superadded to the others? 



PREFACE. 



9 



A. Most decidedly. It wiis also the opinion of some of the 
inspectors of schools, who came to visit him, that such children 
were in general more intelligent than those of other parishes; 
and they attribute the difference to their observant and reason- 
ing faculties being thus developed. . . . 

Q. So that the intellectual success of this objective study 
was beyond question ? 

A. Beyond question. ... In conducting the examinations 
of medical men for the army, which I have now conducted for 
several years, and those for the East India Company's service, 
which I have conducted for, I think, seven years, the questions 
which I am in the habit of putting, and which are not answered 
by the majority of the candidates, are wh^t would have been 
answered by the children in Prof. Henslow's village-school. I 
believe the chief reason to be, that these students' observing 
faculties, as children, had never been trained — such faculties 
having lain dormant with those who naturally possessed them 
in a high degree ; and having never been developed, by train- 
ing, in those who possessed them in a low degree. In most 
medical schools, the whole sum and substance of botanical 
science is crammed into a few weeks of lectures, and the men 
leave the class without having acquired an accurate knowledge 
of the merest elements of the science. . . . 



The printed form or schedule contrived by Prof. 
Henslow, and used in these classes, applied only to 
the flower, the most complex part of the plant, and 
the attention of children was directed by it chiefly to 
those features upon which orders depend in classiflca- 
tion. But, instead of confining its use to the study 
of the flower, it seemed to me to be equally useful in 
the whole course of Descriptive Botany. I accord- 
ingly prepared a simplified series of exercises on this 
plan, and used them to guide some little children in 



10 PREFACE. 



studying the plants of the neighborhood ; and the ex- 
periment was regarded by those who w^itnessed it as 
so successful, that a book embodying the course of 
study was thought desirable. 



After a year's trial with this method of study, in 
many schools of all grades and by private students, it 
has been approved with remarkable unanimity and 
earnestness. We have, therefore, now added several 
chapters concerning the seed, germination, buds, the 
aspect of woody plants, etc. The descriptions re- 
quired by these objects will be more full and general, 
but the plan of describing only the results of actual 
observations is still adhered to. Questions are asked, 
but no answers are given ; these are to be found by 
direct inspection of the objects. Some simple experi- 
ments for children are introduced, and their attention 
is directed to the changes which take place in the dif- 
ferent parts of the plants. 

Only those observations have been selected which 
can be made with the naked eye. But in " The 
Second Book of Botany" the plan of schedule-study 
is carried out, and provision made for more close and 
extended observations requiring the help of magnify- 
ing-glasses. 

Attempts have been made to teach classes by the 
schedule method of this work, giving the children 
only blackboard-lessons for guidance instead of the 



PREFACE. 



11 



book ; but all such attempts will be futile. For the 
very essence of this method is that the pupil must 
himself find out what he wants to know, and the 
repetition of observations, their comparison, and veri- 
fication in determining characters, make it indispen- 
sable that book and plant should go together. Only 
as a manual of practice in the hands of the learner 
can the present book subserve the purpose for which 
it was prepared. 

In the preparation of the present cheaper edition 
of " The First Book of Botany,'* while its essential 
plan has been in no wise altered, several changes have 
been made. Some of the larger and less important 
illustrations have been omitted, and a few others sub- 
stituted ; the observations upon flowers have been 
extended, and slight additions made to the text ; 
while, by resetting, the whole matter has been brought 
within smaller compass. 

"The Second Book of Botany," which follows 
the present volume, has also been thoroughly revised, 
and will be soon issued with a contained Flora, which, 
with the use of Ilenslow's Botanical Charts, will 
afford excellent facilities for the study of Systematic 
Botanv. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



The method to be pursued by the aid of this book is the fol- 
lowing: The child, first of all, collects son^e plants— almost any 
will answer in the start. The roots, stems, and leaves of plants, 
it is assumed, are already known. But they are made up of 
parts that vary in form and structure in diiferent species. The 
object of the learner is to find out these parts, to learn their 
names and the names of their variations, so as to be able to de- 
scribe them. 

In the First Exercise, for example, he finds the parts of 
leaves shown by pictures, along with the names by which they 
are known. He now looks at his specimens, and finds the real 
things which the pictures and the words represent. When a 
few of the parts are learned he commences the practice of 
writing down what he observes. For this purpose a form, or 
schedule, is used, containing questions which indicate what he 
is to search for. Models of these schedules are given, in which 
a pictured example is described. Children can make their own 
schedules as soon as they have learned to print. At each new 
exercise he carefully observes his specimens and writes down 
what he finds. Having done this, he pins the specimen to the 
paper describing it, and brings all his work to the teacher as 
the report of his observation and judgment in the several cases. 

This operation is constantly repeated upon varying forms, 
and slowly extended by the addition of new characters. He 
thus goes on discovering new parts, and learning their names — 
noting the variations of these parts, and finding the names of 
these variations. The schedules guide him forward in the right 



14 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACUERS. 

direction, and hold hina steadily to the essential work of exer- 
cising his faculties upon the living ohjects before him. In every 
fresh collection of plants, new parts and new relations will so- 
licit the attention, and will have to be observed, compared, and 
recorded. The names of plants, the parts of which are pictured 
and described in this book, are not given. Many of them are 
mere diagrams or outlines. Their purpose is to enable the pupil 
to form clear ideas of what he is to look for in li\ing plants ; 
and they are of no other possible account. The ability to clas- 
sify and name the plants of a region is one of the final results of 
this study, and curiosity about their names before their botan- 
ical characters are known need not be encouraged. The object 
is, by constant practice and repetition of observations upon a 
great variety of plants, to train the pupil to find out the char- 
acters of any that come in his way, and make full and accurate 
descriptions of them. 

An acquaintance w^ith botany on the part of the teacher, 
although desirable, is not indispensable in using these exercises. 
Any teacher or parent who is icilling to take the necessary pains 
can conduct the children through them without difficulty ; and 
if they will become fellow -students with them, all the better. 
The child is not to be taught^ but is to instruct himself. The 
very essence of the plan is, that he is to malce his own way^ and 
rely on nobody else ; it is intended for self -development. Mis- 
takes will, of course, be made ; but the whole method is self- 
correcting^ and the pupil, as he goes forward, will be constantly 
rectifying his past errors. The object is less to get perfect re- 
salts at first than to get the pupiFs opinion upon the basis of 
his own observations. 

Children can begin to study plants successfully by this 
method at six or seven years of age, or as soon as they can 
write. But close observations should not be required from 
young beginners, nor the exercises be prolonged to weariness. 
The transition from the unconscious and spontaneous observa- 
tions of children to conscious observation with a definite pur- 
pose should be gradual, beginning and continuing for some 
time with the easiest exercises upon the most simple and obvi- 
ous characters. 



HENSLOWS BOTANICAL CHARTS. 



In the study of plants, when the parts looked for are com- 
plex or minute, it is a great help to the pupil to form before- 
hand a clear idea of what he is to look iFor. The illustrations 
of the book help him in this way, and teachers often prepare 
large colored diagrams for the same pm-pose. More fully to 
meet this need of schools and students, one of the last labors 
of Prof. Henslow's life was to prepare a set of botanical charts. 
There was, perhaps, no other living man so competent to the 
task, as his thorough knowledge of the science, his experience 
as a lecturer to the Cambridge students when he was professor 
in that university, and his subsequent teaching of the parish 
children at Hitch am, qualified him to meet the want^ of all 
grades of learners. He prepared a series of nine large sheets, 
and, as their publication was expensive, it was undertaken by 
the Science and Art Department of the English Educational 
Council. '^Henslow's Botanical Diagrams" have a high repu- 
tation for their scientific accuracy, their completeness of illus- 
tration, their judicious selection of typical specimens, and their 
skillful arrangement for the purpose of education. 

As nothing of the kind had been done in this country, and 
as Henslow's series when imported is costly ; and, especially as 
they are a most valuable help to the schedule method of teach- 
ing botany, I was desirous that the pupils of our schools in 
their efforts at self-teaching should as far as possible have the 
advantage of their use. The publishers of this book accordingly 
incurred tlie very considerable expense of preparing a revised 
edition of the English charts. This revision and reissue were 
the more necessary, as the foreign edition is compressed into 



16 HEXSLOW'S BOTANICAL CHARTS. 

so small a space that tlie figures often overlap, producing an 
indistinct and confused effect. The American edition consists 
of six large charts, and the pictures are spread over twice the 
original area, giving much greater distinctness and a very at- 
tractive aspect to the series. Several American plants have 
been substituted for the Enghsh species that are not found in 
this country, and illustrations of the classes of flowerless plants 
have been added, for which Prof. Henslow did not seem to find 
room. 

In the plan of the charts, the plant is first represented of 
its natural size and colors; then a magnified section of one of 
its flowers is given, showing the relations of the parts to each 
other. Separate magnified views of the different floral organs, 
exhibiting all the botanical characters that belong to the group 
of which it is a type, are also represented. The charts contain 
nearly five hundred figures colored to the life, which represent 
twenty-four orders and more than forty species of plants, show- 
ing a great variety of forms and structures of leaf, stem, root, 
inflorescence, flower, fruit, and seed, with numerous incidental 
characters peculiar to limited groups. All these are so pre- 
sented as to be readily compared and contrasted with each 
other. 

The charts are not designed to supersede the study of plants, 
but only to facilitate it. Their office is the same as the illustra- 
tions of the book ; but they are more perfect, and bring the 
pupil a step nearer to the objects themselves. 

Besides this special assistance in object-study, the charts 
will be of great value, later on in the study, by bringing into a 
narrow compass a complete view of the structures and relations 
of the leading types of the vegetable kingdom. In fact, they 
are designed to present, fully and clearly, those groupings of 
characters upon which orders depend in classification; while in 
several cases of large and diversified orders the charactei's of 
leading genera are also given by typical specimens. The charts 
will thus be found equally valuable to the beginner, the inter- 
mediate pupil, and the advanced student. A Key accompanies 
them, and they can be used with any botanical text-books, 
and during the season of plants they should be upon the walls 
of every school-room where botany is studied. 



CONTEI^TS. 



PAGE 

Preface v^. 3 

Suggestions to Teachers 13 

Henslow's Botanical Charts 15 

Chapter L— THE LEAF 21 

Ex. 1. The Parts of a Leaf 21 

2. Venation 24 

3. The Margin of Leaves 27 

4. The Base and Apex of the Leaf-Blade 32 

5. The Forms of Lobes 35 

6. The Shapes of Leaves : . . . 38 

7. The Petiole, Colors, Surfaces 44 

8. How to tell Compound Leaves 46 

9. Parts of Compound Leaves ; 48 

10. Varieties of Pinnate and Digitate Leaves 50 

11. Stipules and Leaf-Schedules 55 

12. How to describe Leaves without Schedules 56 

Chap. IL— THE STEM 57 

Ex. 13. The Parts of Stems 57 

14. Venation 60 

15. Winter Buds 65 

16. Arrangement of Leaves on the Stem 67 

17. Radical Leaves . . „ 70 

18. Attitude of Stems 72 

19. Shapes of Stems 75 

20. Color, Surface, Size, Structure o 76 

21. Underground Stems c ....,,,..,.. .... . 77 



18 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chap. III.— THE ROOT 81 

Ex. 22. Tap-Roots and Fibrous Roots 81 

Chap. IY.— THE INFLORESCENCE 85 

Ex. 23. Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence 85 

24. Parts of the Inflorescence 86 

25. Attitude of Inflorescence 88 

26. Varieties of Inflorescence 89 

Chap. Y.— THE FLOWER 95 

Ex. 21. Parts of the Flower 95 

28. Parts of the Calyx and Corolla 97 

29. Kinds of Calyx 99 

SO. Kinds of Corolla and Perianth 101 

81. Stamens and Pistil 103 

32. How to describe Stamens and Pistils 105 

83. Kinds of Polypetalous Corollas, Regular and Irregular 107 

34. Kinds of Gamopetalous CorollaS; Regular and Irregular 111 

35. Crowns, Spurs, and Nectaries 115 

36. Symmetry of Flowers 116 

37. Complete and Incomplete Flowers 118 

38. Essential Organs and Protecting Organs 120 

39. Dichlamydeous, Monochlamydeous, and Achlamydeous 

Flowers 120 

40. Perfect, Imperfect, and Neutral Flowers 122 

41. Monoecious, Dioecious, and Polygamous Plants 123 

Chap. YL— THE SEED 126 

Ex. 42. Parts of the Seed 126 

43. Parts of the Body or Kernel 129 

44. Parts of the Embryo 131 

45. Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons 134 

Chap. YIL— WOODY PLANTS 186 

Ex. 46. Their Different Kinds 136 

47. Parts of a Tree 189 

48. Parts of a Trunk 141 

49. Kinds of Trunk 142 

50. Questions about Trees. 143 



CONTENTS. 19 

PAGE 

Chap. VITL— FRUIT 149 

Ex. 51. What is Fruit 149 

62. Sutures and Dehiscence 150 

53. Parts of Carpels 153 

Chap. IX.— THE ACTIONS OF FLANTS 155 

Ex. 54. Root-action and Leaf -action o 155 



THE 



FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE LEAF. 

EXERCISE I. 
The Parts of a Leaf. 

The first question to be asked about a leaf is, 
What are its parts ? You are to study living leaves. 
Begin by finding and naming their parts. But, first 
of all, you must get leaves to study. 

If you look along the fences, in the yards, gar- 
dens, and orchards, in the fields and woods, you will 
find leaves of many sorts on trees, bushes, and herbs. 
Break them off carefully, so as to miss none of their 
parts. It is better (when you are permitted) to get 
small branches from trees and bushes, and you may 
often find it best to get the whole of low plants. In 
this way you will be sure to have the leaves with all 
the parts belonging to them. 

Fig. 1 shows you the parts of a complete leaf, and 
the name of each part is printed near it. 

Blade. — The fiattened green part of the leaf. 

Pet^iole. — The leaf-stalk. 

Stip^ules. — Small bodies at the base of the petiole, 
that look more or less like leaves. 



22 



THE FIUST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Look over the leaves yoa have gathered, and find 
the blade in each of your specimens ; find the petiole, 
and look for the stipules. Leaves having all the parts 



Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 




Blade. 



stipules. 



seen in Fig. 1 are said to be comxplete. When you 
find a leaf without a leaf-stalk, but with the blade 
sitting upon the branch, it is called a sessile leaf. 
(Sessile means sitting.) 

Do not expect to find the parts of leaves shaped 
just like the figures in the book. Stipules are often 
very small — mere thread-like bodies, that you may 
easily overlook. And they are so often absent that 
perhaps you have not a single complete leaf among 
your specimens. You can easily tell which is blade 
and which is leaf -stalk in your leaves, and you will 
know the stipules when you see them. 

Point out and give the name of each of the parts 



THE LEAF. 



23 



of each kind of leaf you liave found. Place the com- 
plete leaves by themselves. Put the sessile leaves 
together. 

The i3arts of grass-leaves are shown in Fig. 3. 
You see the blade, the flattened upper part of the 
leaf; and the sheath, a leaf -stalk surrounding the 



Fia. 3. 



Sheath, 



Liffule 



Sheath.-. 




Blade. 



stem ; then on each leaf there is a lio'ule — it is the 
scale-like stipule on the inside of the leaf between 
the sheath and the blade. 

There are many kinds of plants with leaves made 
up of parts similar to these of the grass-leaf. Com- 
pare grass-leaves with Fig. 3. 



24 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXEEOISE IL 
Venation, 

You already know by name, and can point out, the 
parts of a leaf. By use you will soon easily remem- 
ber these names. You have learned the names of 
hundreds and hundreds of things, by hearing others 
use them, and by using them yourself. Knowing the 
name of a thing is not knowing much about it, to be 
sure ; but we must know its name if we are going to 
talk and write about it. There are a great many 
different parts in plants, and a great many new words 
will be needed in their study ; but w4ien you are 
looking at them, and talking and writing about them, 
you will learn their names without effort. 

There is a great deal to be seen in leaf-blades. 
Hold up a leaf between your eye and the light ; you 
see it covered over with line lines, and it has also a 
few coarser lines running through it. Break one of 
the coarser ones and examine it. Is it woody ? Is it 
hollow ? These lines are called veins^ and all of them 
taken together are spoken of as the venation of the 
leaf. You see that the spaces between these lines are 
all filled in with green matter. In some strong- veined 
leaves this matter can all be dissolved, leaving the 
veins just as they are now, but naked. 

Find where the largest veins begin and end. 
Where do the finer lines begin and end? Are there 
more than two sizes of veins ? 

You will need names for these different-sized 
veins. The largest are called kibs, the branches from 
the ribs are called veins, and the smallest are called 
VEINLETS. (See Figs. 6 and 7.) Put by themselves 



THE LEAR 



25 



all the leaves you have in which the veinlets form an 
irregular net-work, as in Fig. 4. These are known as 
net-veined leaves. 



Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5. 




A Net-veined Leaf. 




A Parallel-'veined Leaf. 



Leaves in which no veinlets are seen, and leaves 
in which the net-work of veinlets is regular, are called 
parallel-veined, and sometimes fork-veined. Fig. 5 
represents a parallel-veined leaf. 

Look at each of your net-veined leaves, and count 
its ribs. If it have only one rib, reaching from the 
leaf-stalk across the blade to its very edge, and giving 
off veins right and left, as the plume spreads away 
from the shaft of a feather, it is called a featJier- 
veined leaf, and its one rib is named the midrib. If 
it have several ribs spreading away from the leaf-, 
stalk, as shown in Fig. 7, it is called a palmate-veined 
leaf. Does Fig. 2 remind you at all of a feather or 

2 



26 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



quill ? Do Figs. 7 and 8 look to youlike your own open 
hand, with the fingers spreading out from the palm ? 



Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 




Veinlets. 



Vein. 



Midrib. 



Feather-veined. 




Palmate-veined. 



Separate your feather-veined from your palmate' 
veined leaves. 

Fig. 8. 




Tou may not always find it easy to tell whether a 
leaf \^ feather veined ox palmate veined. Large veins 
that start near the leaf -stalk sometimes look very much 
like ribs. You may make mistakes here at first ; but 
remember that finding out mistakes is a good way 
to learn. 



THE LEAF. 



27 



Did you ever see the frame of a house before it 
was covered with boards ? Did you ever see the bony 
frame of an animal with all its flesh gone ? All the 
veins of a leaf, taken together, are often spoken of as 
its frame. 

Can you now point out the parts of any leaf you 
find? Can you tell whether it is net- or parallel- 
veined ? Do you know feather- veined from palmate- 
veined leaves ? 

In place of reciting to your teacher a lesson learned 
from a book, you may find the answers to two ques- 
tions on each of the leaves you have gathered, and 
give them in writing as you see done in the following 
schedule. The first question is, What parts has it ? 
The second is, What is its venation ? 

Fig. 9. 




Schedule First, describing Fia. 9. 




Parts? 


^/a(/e, miwd, (2%^«^^. 




Venation ? 


QAe^=7/ec?iea. 





This has been done for Fig. 9 to show you how to 
proceed. Have by you a good many pieces of paper 



28 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



with these two questions either printed or written 
upon them, as seen in schedule first. Answer these 
questions about any leaf, as you see they have been 
answered about Fig. 9. Pin each bit of paper to the 
leaf it describes, and give all to your teacher. This 
will be at once an exercise in botany, in writing, and 
in spelling ; and it will show your teacher what use 
you have made of the time taken to study plants. 



EXEECISE ITT. 
The Margin of Leaves* 

Look at the edges of your leaves. Are they all 
alike ? Are all that grow on the same plant alike ? 

The edge of a leaf-blade is called its margin. 

Some of the most common forms of margins are 
here given. Compare your leaves with these figures 
to find which they are most like. The name of the 
form is given below the figure, and you are also told 
how you may name those margins that are not like 
the diagrams. 



Fig. 10. 



Fig. 11. 



Fig. 12. 




EDtire. 



Serrate. 



Crenate, 



THE LEAR 



29 



An Entire margin is even and smooth, like Fig. 10. 

A See^eate margin has sharp teeth pointing for- 
ward like a saw (see Fig. 11). 

A Cre^nate margin has broad, rounded notches, 
like Fig. 12. 

A Den^tate margin has sharp teeth pointing out- 
ward. Figs. 13 and 14 are different forms of Dentate 
margin. 

Fig. 13. Fig. 14^ Fig. 15. 




Dentate. 



Dentate. 



Eepand. 



In Eepand^ (Wavy) margins the edge curves out- 



ward and inward, as in Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 



Fig. 17. 




Finely Serrate. 




Finely Crenate. 



Each of these different kinds of margin varies in 
many ways. 

Figs. 16 and 17 show the serrate and crenate mar- 



30 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



gins, with their notches very small. They are hence 
described as finely serrate and finely crenate. On the 
Other hand, if the toothing is very large, as in Fig. 
18, the margin is coarsely serrate. 

When coarsely-notched leaves have finer notches 
upon their margin, as in Fig. 19, the leaves are said 



Fio. 18. 



Fig. 19. 





Coarsely Serrate. 



Doubly Serrate. 



to be doubly serrate, dentate, etc. When the notches 
are of all sizes, and without any order, as in Fig. 20, 
they are said to be unevenly serrate, or crenate, or 
dentate. You will often find two or more kinds of 
toothing upon the same leaf. In such cases, to de- 
scribe the margin, you have only to put together 
these names of the different kinds of notches. For 
instance, if part of the notches are serrate and part 
dentate, this forms a serrate-dentate margin. If some 
of the notches are crenate and some serrate, it will be 
crenate-serrate, and so on. 

Such deep notches as are seen in Fig. 21 form 
lobes, and the margins of these lobes vary like other 
leaf-margins. 

The questions in schedule second are asked con- 



THE LEAF. 



31 



cerning Fig. 3, the grass-leaf. Compare the answers 
with the picture. Add this question to the others of 



Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 





Unevenly Serrate. 



A Lobed Leaf. 



your schedules, and look closely for all these different 
forms of margin. In answering it you will soon get 
familiar with the words needed to describe them. 



Schedule Second, describing Fig. 3. 



Parts ? 


.^/ac/e, (^^eam, S£f'au/e. 


Venation ? 


,££uiaue/=vei?2ea. 


Margin ? 


(Dnltie. 



32 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE IV. 
The Base and Apex of the Leaf- Blade* 

It is a good thing for scholars that leaves quickly 
wither, and must be gathered afresh for each day's 
study. It will be strange and very stupid if, in get- 
ting the same ones you studied the day before, you 
do not each day find others that are new to you. 
You should always try to do this. 

When you were studying the venation of your 
leaf-blades and their margins, perhaps you did not 
notice that they also differed very much in shape. 
We are now to begin the study of the forms of 
leaves, and the first step will be to notice the two 
ends of the leaf-blade. The lower end, next the 
stalk, is called the base of the blade, and the other 
end is called the apex. Fig. 22 represents two leaves 
placed one upon the other, that are alike in shape of 
apices but unlike at the base. The names given to 
the shapes of the bases of leaf -blades are : 



Fig, 22. 



Fig. 23. 



Hastate. 
Sagittate. 





H as^tate (Halberd-shaped). — When there are 
spreading lobes at the base, as in the diagram, Fig. 22. 



TEE LEAF. 



33 



Sag^ittate ( Aero w-sh aped). — When these lobes 
are sharp, and point downward. Fig. 22. When these 
basal lobes are small and rounded, they are said to be 
AUKic^uLATE (ear-shapod), Fig. 23. 

Ren^iform (Kidj^ey-shaped). — When they are 
broader than long, as seen in the diagram, Fig. 24, 
where the shapes of five different leaf-blades are shown. 

Cordate (Heart-shaped), Fig. 24. — When the 
whole blade is shaped like a heart, it is said to be 
cordate. But the word may 
the base alone. V 

Fig. 24. Fio. 25. 



be used in describing 



Lanceolate. - 

Subulate. - 

Cordate. - 

Keniform... 

Ovate. .. 





Oblique^ — When one side of the base is longer 
and lower than the other. Fig. 25. 



Fm. 26. 



Fig. 27. 



Fig. 28. 






Tapering. — When the blade tapers off at the base. 
Fig. 26 shows a base that is very tapering. 



34 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Clasping. — Where the base folds around the stem 
of the plant, Fig. 27. 

Connate^ — Where the bases of two leaves grow 
together around the plant-stem, as in Fig. 28. 

Decue^rent. — Where the lower part of the mid- 
rib grows to the plant-stem, as in Fig. 29. 




Fig. 80. 



Obcordate 

Otx)vate / / 

Oblanceolate 

Spatulate. 




The apex of a leaf is said to be acute' when it 
ends in a point ; but if the point is very sharp and 
tapering, it is acn'minate. The cordate leaf-form 
shown in Fig. 24 has an apex that may be called 
acute. The lanceolate leaf-form has an acuminate 
apex. 

When very blunt, the apex is called obtuse. When 
there is no proper apex, and the end of the blade 
looks as if it had been cut off, it is said to be truW- 
cate. 

It is emar'ginate when it has a small, sharp, in- 
ward notch at the apex, and retuse' when it is rounded 
inward. But when the apex is rounded inward so as 
to look like a cordate lase^ it is an obcor'date apex. 
(See Fig. 30.) 

When the blade ends suddenly with a short, slen- 



THE LEAF. 



35 



der point, it is cus'jpidate / but if the point is sharp 
and stiff, it is mu'cronate. 

The words acute, acuminate, and obtuse, may be 
used to describe hases as well as wpices^ and, when 
we wish to say that a shape is less acute or less 
acuminate than those shown in Fig. 24, we may say 
it is sub-acute or sub -acuminate. 

Schedule third again describes Fig. 1. Observe 
how the three new questions about leaves are here 
answered. 

Schedule Thikd, describing Fig. 1. 



Parts? 


J^/ac/e, m^w/e. (^h/iuA 


Venation ? 


OAe^-vecnec/, (^eamei=vecnec/. 


Margin ? 


(^iia^e. 


Base? 


mu^e. 


Apex ? 


(S/au^acu/e. 



EXERCISE Y. 

The Fortns of Lobes. 

Before studying the forms of whole blades, it will 
be well to look with more care at lobed leaves. Gather 
as many as you can find ; for, the more specimens 
you study at each exercise, the more you will learn. 



36 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



The lobe at the apex of a leaf, which is called the 
terminal lobe, and those at the base, called the hasal 
lobes, have to be first noticed. Are they alike in the 
same leaf? Are they like the other lobes of the 
leaf? 



Fig. CI. 



F:g. 32. 




Bounded Lobes. 




Acute Lobes. 



Observe whether the lobes are round like Fig. 31, 
or sharp like Fig. 32. . 

Add the question Lobes ? to your schedule, and 
when you answer it in regard to a leaf, say how many 
lobes it has, and whether they are round or sharp. 
If the terminal or the basal lobes are larger, smaller, 
or different in shape from the others, you can put 
down the fact in answer to the questions Base ? and 
Apex? When feather-veined leaves are lobed, they 
are said to be pinnately lobed (from pinna^ a feather), 
and palmate-veined leaves, Fig. 32, are said to be pal- 
mately lobed. 

Look your specimens over once more, to see 
whether the spaces between the lobes are alike in all 
of them. The space between two lobes is called a 
si^nus. Look at the names given to the different 
sinuses in the following figures. 



Fig. 33 



Fig. 85. 



Open Sinus. 



Shut Sinus. 



Lobes Spreading. 
Sharp Sinus. 



37 




When feather-veined leaves have deep lobes, they 
are said to be pinnatifid. 



Fig. 36. 



Fig. 3T. 




Broad, round, shallow Sinus. 




Eound, deep Sinus. 



Fig. 33, with its open sinus, is further described 
as regularly pinnatifid. If the pupil choose, Fig. 34 
might be said to have its lobes overlapping, and Fig. 



38 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

35 its lobes spreading, in place of referring to the 
sinus. 

Fig. 38. 




Sharp and deep Sinus. 



EXERCISE yi. 
The Shapes of Leaves. 

Tou have seen that leaves take on many different 
shapes. All the leading forms which they assume are 
shown in this exercise. Each figure has a name of its 
own ; but you need not fear the task of learning so 
many new words. Give yourself no trouble about 
it. When you find a leaf that is like any figure 
here given, use the name given to the figure in de- 
scribing the leaf, and, by doing this over and over, 
you will find that the word will seem to become part 
of the shape. When you see the shape, the word 
will come at once into your mind. Never try to 
learn botanical names in any other way. Be sure 
that, if you really study plants as they abound every- 
where, the language needed to describe them will be 
learned without any sense of effort. If you collect 



THE LEAF. 



39 



and describe as many leaves as you should, you will 
have abundant use for every one of the terms here 
given. 

For the present, put aside your lobed leaves. 

The first eighteen diagrams are divided into three 
groups : 

(a.) Figures of leaves that are broadest in the 
middle. 

(&.) Figures of leaves that are broadest at the base. 

(c.) Figures of leaves broadest at the apex. 

You will know at once which of these groups to 
compare a leaf with. 

Do not expect to find your specimens exactly like 
the figures. Give them tlie names of the forms they 
most resemble. 

When a leaf seems to be about equally like any 
two figures, join together the names of these two 
forms in describing it, as seen in Fig. 42. 



(a.) LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST EST THE 
MIDDLE. 



Fig. 39. 



Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41. 




Orbic'ular. 



Rotun'date. 



Broadly elliptical. 



40 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. 




\ 



y 



Linear. 



Acic'ular. 



Oblong elliptical. Oblong. 

(5.) LEAVES THAT ARE BROADEST AT THE BASE. 

Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 




Lanceolate. Awl -shaped. 
Fig. 52. 




Cordiform. 



Hastate. 



Sagittate. 



THE LEAF. 



41 



(C.) LEAVES THxiT ARE BROADEST AT THE APEX. 
Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. 






Obcordiform. 



Obo'vate. 



Oblan'cenlate, 



Spat'ulate. 



Fig. 57 represents 'a peltate leaf. It Is an unusual 
and striking leaf -form. 

Peltate leaves are round, and iiave tlie petiole 
attached near the middle of the under surface of the 
blade. Fig. 57. 



Fig. 57.- 



Fig. 58. 




Acicular. 
Linear. 
Oblong. 
Oval. .., 

Elliptical 

Eotundate 

Orbicular 



Peltate. 




The forms shown in Fig. 58 are a repetition of 
those shown in group a^ and will help the scholar in 



42 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



forming a correct idea of the shape that goes with 
any of these names. 

In studying lobed leaves yon will find a good 
many very singular forms, concerning which it would 
be hard to answer the questions in the schedule. 
Some of these forms are here pictured. When you 
find in your collection lobed leaves that are very 
peculiar, compare them with these pictures and defini- 
tions. 

A Run'cinate leaf is a lobed feather-veined leaf, 
in which the lobes point backward toward the base. 
Fig. 59. 



Fig. 59. 



Fig, 60. 



Fig. 61. 




Euncinate. 



Bipinnatifid. 



Pedate. 



Bipinnat'ifid leaves are formed when a deeply- 
lobed feather- veined leaf has its lobes again lobed, as 
in Fig. 60. 

A Ped'ate leaf is a lobed palmate-veined leaf, in 
which the lobes at the base are lobed again, and give 
the leaf a look like the foot of a bird, Fig. 63. 

Laciniate. — Leaves are so named when they look 



THE LEAF. 



43 



as if they had been gashed with scissors. Fig. 62 is 
an example of such a leaf. 

A Lyrate leaf is a lobed feather-veined leaf, with 



Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 





Laciniate. 



Lyrate, 



the terminal lobe much larger than the others. Fig. 
63. 

Fig. 62 is described in schedule fourth, where, in 
saying the shape is Laciniate, the questions Base? 
Apex ? and Lobes ? are all answered. 

Schedule Fourth, describing Fig. 62. 



Parts ? 


We^o/e. ^/aJe. 


Venation ? 


c/a/m a^e^vecnec/. 


Margin ? 




Shape ? 


<^£acinca/e. 



44 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE YII. 
The I'etiole, Colors, Surface. 

If jou have gathered and studied all the leaves 
you could find, as directed in former exercises, when 
now you look at leaves you notice what parts make 
them up, their style of venation, their margins, their 
shapes at their bases and apices; if they are lobed 
leaves, you inspect and count the lobes, and you try 
to say in one word, if possible, what is their general 
shape. 

Put three more questions to this list, and when all 
are answered jou have given a botanical description 
of a simple leaf. The Mrst of these new questions is, 
Petiole? Tell whether the petiole is roundish, angu- 
lar, furrowed, long or short, straight or crooked, stiff 
or flexible. 

The next question is, Color ? Have you not seen 
that leaves vary in color from dark to light green ; 
that they are sometimes spotted, or striped with 
brown, red, and other colors ; that the under side often 
has one color, and the upper another ? This question 
will be easily answered. 

Then you must observe the qualities of the surface 
of a leaf. If it is smooth, say so. If it is hairy, bot- 
anists call it glabrous^ which means hairy. They have 
a word also for silky hairs — tomentose. Sometimes 
the surface is very shiny. In answering this question, 
put down whatever appears to be the character of the 
surface you are describing. 

The surfaces of plants are said to be Silky when 
the hairs are long, very fine, and pressed down closely, 
so as to present a silky appearance. 



THE LEAF. 



45 



The schedule is now made up of the following ten 
questions : 

Schedule Fifth. 

While in a book we must 
give a fixed order of exercises, 
it is well if teachers use their 
own judgment in followingthis 
order. Often much will he 
gained by changing it. There 
are minds that demand vari- 
ety, or their interest flags; 
and the minds of children, 
especially, are liable to grow 
weary of continued attention 
to one class of objects. Before 
proceeding with the exercises 
upon compound leaves, it may, 
therefore, be advisable to turn 
to the chapter upon the In- 
florescence, or that upon the 
Flower, and occupy a little 
time with the opening exercise 
in which the names of parts 
are brought before the mind. 
The identification and naming 
of the parts of flowers will be 
easier to most children than 
finding the difierences be- 
tween simple and compound 
leaves ; while dealing with an- 
other and more showy portion 
of the plant will stimulate the attention. 

The use of schedule fifth should, however, still be kept up, 
and, after a little while, the pupil will come back to the study 
of compound leaves with a fresh relish for the subject. 



Parts ? 




Venation ? 




Margin ? 




Bas^? 




Apex ? 




Lobes ? 




Shape ? 




Petiole ? 




Color? 




Surface ? 





46 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE YIIL 
How to tell Compound Leaves. 

The next time you search, for leaves, remember 
that some leaves have more than one blade, as shown 
in Fig. 65. When you see a leaf with several blades 



Fig. 64. 



Fi«. 65. 





growing from the petiole and its continuation, call it 
a compoimd leaf, and call eacb of these blades a leaflet 
It is sometimes difficult to tell a simple from a com- 
pound leaf, and this is the reason that I did not call 
attention to them before. You have to learn : first, 
the differences between simple leaves without lobes 
and compound leaves ; and second, the differences 
between lobed leaves and compound leaves. 

A simple leaf has only one blade, as in Fig. 64. 
Any leaf with more than one blade is coinjpound. If 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



47 



you have been describing leaflets as if they were sim- 
ple leaves, you must now be careful not to make this 
mistake. 

Your chief difficulty will be to know leaflets from 
the lobes of deeply-lobed leaves. It is said that leaf- 
lets are jointed to the stalk, and you may know a 
joint by the smooth end of the broken-off petiole; 
but this is not always true. Leaflets may be found 
in all stages of union with the stem, and there is no 
way of being sure which is which but by patiently 
studying the leaves themselves. It requires a good 
deal of judgment, but there is no harm in making 
the attempt, even if it is likely to be often a failure. 

Another way of settling the question is to see if 
the green matter reaches all around the framework, 
and is continued down the common stalk (Fig. QQ). 



Fig. ^. 



Fig. 6T. 




Lobes, 



Leaflets. 



This never happens in the case of leaflets. The way 
leaflets differ from deep lobes is shown in Fig. 67. 

If you make mistakes in this matter, never mind. 
Each mistake will help you on, if you keep trying to 
learn. 



48 TEE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE IX. 
l^arts of Compound Leaves. 

Leaves, in growing, are sometimes changed from 
simple to slightly lobed, from slightly to deeply lobed, 
and from lobed to compound. When feather-veined 
leaves, with their stout middle rib, are thus changed, 
they become pinnately lobed, or pinnately compound 
as in Fig. 68. 

Leaves with several ribs, palmate-veined leaves, 

Fig. 68. 



.Leaflet. 



Eachis. 

Petiolule. 



_ Petiole. 
—Stipules. 



become palmately lobed or palmately compound, as 
shown in Fig. 69. They are usually called digitate 
leaves, from the resemblance of the leaflets to fingers. 

Leaflet. — One of the blades of a compound leaf. 

Pet^iolule. — The stem of a leaflet. 

Sti'pels. — The stipules of leaflets. 

Ra'chis. — The continuation of the petiole to 
which leaflets are attached. 

Gather a great many compound leaves and look 
for their different parts. 

The parts of different kinds of compound leaves 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



49 



are shown in Figs. 68, 69, and TO, along with the 
meaning of all the names you do not already know. 



Fig. 69. 




Leaflets. 



Petiole. 



Stipules. 



By comparing your specimens with these figures you 
w^ill be able to fill out a compound-leaf schedule, hav- 
ing the two questions shown in schedule sixth. Do 
not pass on to the next exercise till you have found 
the parts of dozens of different kinds of compound 
leaves. 

ScHEorLE Sixth, describing Fig. 68. 



Parts. 



No. of 
Leaflets. 



^iac/ii^, cPelco/e, Gytiyia/e^, c^ea//e{^ 



/^. (^y^eamel^vecnec/, GyeUU'^e, (Ji/ale. 



50 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Observe tlie venation, margin, shape, etc., of leaf- 
lets as you have done in studying simple leaves. You 



Fig. 70. 




Leaflet. 



Petiolule. 

Stipels. 

Eachis. 



Petiole. 



Stipules. 



see, in schedule sixth, that the leaflets are described 
as feather- veined, serrate, ovate. 



EXERCISE X. 
Varieties of Pinnate and I>ig'itate Leaves^ 

Compound leaves, then, having parts similar to 
those shown in Figs. 65, 68, 71, are called pinnate 
leaves; and when the parts are joined as in Figs. 
78 and 79, they are called digitate leaves. But there 
are a great many kinds of both pinnate and digitate 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 51 

leaves. Gather some compound leaves and separate 
the pinnate from the digitate ones. Observe the dif- 

FiG. Tl. 




ferent forms of pinnate leaves. Leaves are said to be 
UNEQUALLY PINNATE when they end with an odd or 
single leaflet. Fig. 71. 

A leaf is said to be abruptly pinnate when it 
ends with a pair of leaflets, Fig. 72. 

Interruptedly Pinnate. — When the leaflets are 
alternately large and small, Fig. 73. 



52 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
Fig. 72. Fig. 73. 




Abruptly Pinnate. 



Fig. 74 




Interruptedly Pinnate. 

'^|L/\FiG. 75.. 




Cirrous. 



Twice Pinnate. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



53 




Thrice Picnate. 



Fig. 77. 



Fig. 78. 





Three-lingered. 



Five-fingered. 



54 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Cirrous. — When the rachis ends in a tendril, 
Fig. 74:. 

Twice Pinnate. — When the petiolule is continued 
as a rachis which bears the leaflets, Fig. 75. 



Fig. 79. 



Fig. so. 




Seven-fingered. 



Twice Three-fingered. 



Tri-Pinnate. — When the leaflets are borne upon 
a third rachis, branching off from the second. Fig. 76. 

Of digitate leaves the varieties are the trifoliate 
or three-fingered (Fig. 77) ; the five-fingered (Fig. 78) ; 
the seven-fingered (Fig. 79) ; and the twice three-fin- 
gered (Fig. 80). 

Five-fingered. — A digitate leaf with five fingers 
or leaflets. 



COMPOUND LEAVES. 



55 



Schedule Seventh, describing Fig. 75. 



Parts ? 


"^e/ih/e, ^ac^a, ^ea//e/^. 


No. Leaflets ? 


/O. (%a4 Snh)e. 


Kind? 


Jrcnnn^e, 


Variety ? 


( 



Fig. 81. 



EXERCISE XI. 
Stipules and Leaf- Schedules. 

Stipules are said to be 

Free. — When not united to any other part, and 

Adnate. — When they grow to the petioles, 
as in Fig. 1. 

Ochreate. — When they form a 
sheath round the stem, Fig. 81. 

Membranous. — When like the 
dried skin of animals, and 

Prickly.— When like those shown 
in Fig. 71. 

All leaves, whether simple or com- 
pound, are said to be stipulate if they 
have stipules, and ex-stipulate if with- 
out stipules. 

Any leaf with a petiole may be described as a 
PETioLATE leaf, and any leaf without a petiole as a 
sessile leaf. 




56 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAXY. 

EXERCISE XII. 
How to describe Leaves without Schedules. 

Pupils who have been diligent in the use of the 
preceding schedules ought now to be able to describe 
leaves vv'ithout their aid. This exercise gives two 
such descriptions. They follow the same order as that 
given in the schedules. The first is a description of 

Fig.l. 

The Made is simple, petiolate, stipulate, net- veined, 
feather-veined, serrate, abruptly acuminate, oval ; 
petiole short ; stipules adnate. 

The second describes Fig. 65, which represents a 

Compound, petiolate, stipulate, unequally pinnate 
leaf. Leaflets 5, petiolate, feather- veined, serrate, 
ovate ; stipules adnate. 

With the next chapter you begin the study of 
stems. But you must not stop observing leaves if you 
are to remember what you have learned. In most 
cases it takes a good deal of time and many repeated 
observations to fix impressions in the mind so that 
they will not be forgotten. It often happens that we 
get familiar with the appearance of objects in a short 
time when we observe them intensely, but this famil- 
iarity is not lasting unless the attention is prolonged, 
or the impressions are revived at intervals. It will 
be best, therefore, to continue to describe leaves in 
the above form upon the stem-schedules that follow. 

In punctuating these descriptions — 1. Separate 
adjectives relating to the same noun by commas ; 2. 
Parts of the same organ by semicolons ; 3. Distinct 
organs by a period. 



CHAPTER II, 
THE STEM. 



EXERCISE XIII. 
The Parts of Stems. 

Fig. 82. 




^ Axil of Leaf, 



Internode, 



Node. 



Nodes and Internodes, 



58 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



If you compare the stems of plants with Fig. 82, 
you will find them made up of the parts here pointed 
out. At certain places, called nodes, along the stem. 



Fig. 83. 




Terminal Bud. 



. Axillary Bud. 



Branch. 



a leaf or leaves will be seen, with bare spaces be- 
tween. In Fig. 82 the stem is made up of these 
spaces, each with a leaf at its top. Find the nodes 



THE STEM. 59 

upon the specimens you have collected for study. 
Find the leaf-axil in your living plants. 

The Node, or joint of a stem, is the point from 
which leaves are given off. 

The Inteknode is the portion of stem between 
two nodes. 

The Leaf-Axil is the point at the upper side of 
the leaf where it joins the stem. 

Observe whether the nodes of plants are swollen 
and watery (tumid) ; whether they are hairy or of a 
different color from the internodes. Look carefully 
to see if stems are jointed at the nodes. 

Observe the parts pointed out in Fig. 83, and look 
for like parts in the plants before you. 

Terminal Bud. — The bud at the end of the 
stem. 

Axillary Bud. — The bud in the axil of a leaf. 

Branch. — A stem wdiich grows from an axillary 
bud. It is sometimes called a secondary stem, and the 
stem from which it starts is said to be the primary 
stem. 

Is the branch made up of the same parts as the 
main stem ? Do you find branches growing from ax- 
illary buds in your specimens ? 

Do not pass on to the next exercise till you have 
examined a great many stems, found all the parts 
shown in Figs. 82 and 83, and become so familiar with 
their names that when asked to point out a leaf-axil 
or a node or internode, you can do it promptly and 
with confidence. 



60 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE Xiy. 
Vernation. 

Vernation is the way in which leaves are folded, 
rolled, or arranged in the bud. 

Fresh buds are constantly appearing throughout 
the growing season at the tips of sterns and in the 
axils of leaves. Observe the way in which the parts 
of these buds are packed together. Observe them 
when they are just opening. If you are watchful, 
you will be sure to find them at a moment when the 
growing leaves have not yet lost the shapes they had 
while packed in the bud. 

The chief ways in which leaves are rolled and 
folded in buds are shown in the following illustrations. 



Fig. 84. 



Fig. 85. 





Reclinate. 



Circinnate. 



THE STEM. 
Fig. 86. 



61 




Oonduplicate. 



Fig. 8T. 



Fig. 88. 





Plicate. 



Convolute. 



62 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Eec'lixate, or Inflexed^ — Folded from apex to 
base, Fig. 84. 

Cm^ciNATE. — Rolled from apex to base. Fig. 85. 



Fig. 89. 




CoNDu'pLicATE. — Folded along the midrib so that 
the two halves are applied to each other, Fig. 86. 

Pli'cate. — Folded like a fan, Figs. 87 and 88. 

ConVolute. — With the leaf rolled spirally so that 
one edge is in the center of the coil and one outside, 
Fig. 89. 

In' VOLUTE. — With both edges rolled inward toward 
the midrib, Fig. 90. 



THE STEM. 



68 



Uev^olute. — With both edges rolled outward to- 
ward the midrib, Fig. 91. 



Fig. 90. 




Involute. 
Fig. 91. 




Revolute. 



64 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

When leaves are neither folded nor rolled in the 
bud, they are said to be flat, 

ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES IN THE BUD. 

By the arrangement of the leaves in a bud is 
meant the ways in which they are placed in relation 
to each other. For instance, Fig. 92 shows what is 
called the equitant arrangement. 

Fig. 92. 




Equitant. 

Eq'uitant. — When opposite conduplicate leaves 
overlap each other at the base. 

Leaves are always arranged in one or other of the 
two ways called valvate and imbricate. 

The Yai S^ate arrangement is seen when the edges 
of corresponding leaves barely touch each other. 

The Im^bricate arrangement is seen when the 
edges of the leaves overlap each other. Fig. 92 
shows an imbricate arrangement. 



THE STEM. 65 

The directions for observing the folding and roll- 
ing of leaves apply also to the study of their arrange- 
ment. But there are several different ways in which 
imbricate leaves are placed, and it is sometimes quite 
difficult to make them out. The best way to study 
the arrangement of leaves in the bud is to cut off the 
top of the bud with a sharp knife, and look down on 
the cut edges, which will show not only whether the 
leaves are imbricate or valvate, but also, if they are 
imbricate, the particular mode of overlapping. In 
most cases, however, a magnifyiug-glass is needed to 
show these details. 



EXERCISE XY. 
Winter Buds, 

The time to study winter buds is in early spring. 
At this season gather buds from all the trees and 
shrubs within your reach. 

Compare them with Figs. 93 and 94. 

Choose a swollen bud, and cut through it, as shown 
in Fig. 95. Can yon find in it the parts there shown ? 

BuD-ScALES. — The covering of winter buds. Figs. 
93, 94. 

Growing-Point. — The soft extremity of the stem 
at the center of the bud, and inclosed in the young 
unexpanded leaves and the bud-scales a^ Fig. 95. 

Unexpanded Leaves are found in buds, as seen 
in Fig. 95. 

Are any of your buds without a protective cover- 
ing to the growing-point ? 

Observe in each case whether the scales are mem- 



66 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



branous, waxy, gummy, lined with down, wool, or 
dense liairs, or varnished upon the exterior. 



Fio. 



Scale-covered 
bud. 



Fia. 94, 



Fig. 95. 




Scale- 
covered 
bud. 




Leaves. 



a. Grow- 
ing point. 



Scales. 



What is the use of the gummy matter, varnish, 
and wax, around the bud ? 

Of what use are the woolly, downy, and hairy 
linings of the bud-scales ? 

What separates the gummed bud-scales when 
grow^th begins ? 

When you are familiar with the w^inter aspect of 
the buds upon the trees around, you will be interested 
in their unfolding. Observe what becomes of the bud- 
scales on each of the trees you have examined. Scales 
may be changed into other parts, or they may fall off 
altogether. Observe these changes. ]S"otice the scars 
left by their fall. 

Pet^iolar scales are formed from the petiole. 

Stip'ular scales are formed from the stipules. 

Folia'ceous scales are formed from the blade of 
the leaf. 



THE STEM. 67 

By frequent observations made during their 
growth, YOU will be able to answer the following 
questions in regard to each sort of bud you have 
found. 

QUESTIONS ON THE BUDS OF A PLANT. 

When do the buds begin to swell ? 

How long are they in unfolding ? 

Are they naked, scaly, woolly, or gummy? 

Can you find the growing-point within them ? 

Is there any appearance of leaves within them ? 

What are the size, color, and "structure of the bud 
before swelling commences ? 

How long is it from the first bursting of the bud 
till the leaves are full grown ? 

What changes of color do the leaves undergo dur- 
ing growth ? 

Are the first-formed leaves as large as those formed 
later in the season ? 

What becomes of the bud-scales as the buds un- 
fold? 

In studying the leaves of a plant, you will, now 
observe the vernation, and it may be given in your 
leaf-description. 



EXERCISE XVI. 
Arrangement of Leaves en the Stem. 

Alternate Leaves. — Leaves are alternate on the 
stem when there is but one at each node, as in Fig. 96. 

Opposite Leaves. — When two leaves grow oppo- 
site each other, we call it the opposite arrangement, 
Fig. 97. 



68 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Whorled Leaves. — When there are more than 
two leaves at a node, we say the leaves are whorled^ 



Fig. 98. 



Fig. 96. 



Fig. 97. 





Alternate Leaves. 



Opposite Leaves. 



Besides pointing out the parts of a stem, can yon 
now determine the vernation of the buds upon it? 
Can you describe the leaf -arrangement ? You can 



THE STEM. 

' Fig. 98. 



69 




Whorled Leaves. 



easily find plenty of examples of all the kinds of 
vernation shown in the foregoing exercises, and of 
the three modes of leaf-arrangement shown in this* 



70 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XVII. 
Hadical Leaves* 

In Fig. 101 the leaves seem to grow from the 
root, and so are called radical leaves. But they really 



Fig. 99, 



Fig. 100. 





Node. 
Node. 

---Node. 



stem Leaves. 



grow from very short stems, like the one shown in 
Fig. 100. Here you see that the nodes are crow^ded 



THE STEM. 



71 



closely above each other, and no internodes are formed. 
Examine plants with radical leaves, and find their 
nodes all packed together close upon the root. 




Radical Leaves, 

When you describe leaves, you should hereafter 
say that they are radical, when they seem to grow 
from the root, and when they grow along the stem 
you should state whether they are alternate, opposite, 
or whorled. For instance, the leaf-description of 
Fig. 97 would read thus : Leaves opposite, petiolate, 
exstipulate, palmate-veined, serrate, base cordate, five- 
lobed, terminal lobe acuminate, leaf broader than long. 



72 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XVIII. 

Attitude of Stents. 

Erect stems stand upright, Fig. 102. 

Drooping stems are weak, and bend over, Fig. 



103. 



Fig, 103. 



li 




Erect. 



Brooping. 



Creeping stems lie along or below the surface of 
the ground, and send down roots from their nodes, 
Fig. 104. 



THE STEM. 
' Fig. 104. 



73 




Fig. 105. 




Ascending. 



74 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTxVNY. 



Trailing stems are weak, and lie loosely along the 
ground, Fig. 105. 

Ascending stems stand slanting, Fig. 106. 




Climbing. 



Fig. lOS. 






Twinin"'. 



Climbing stems are weak, and cling by tendrils to 
the objects about them. Fig. 107. 

Twining stems are too weak to stand alone, and 
support themselves by winding around other stems, 
Fig. 108. 



THE STEM. 



75 



EXERCISE XIX. 

Shapes of Stems. 

The following are by no means all the shapes, nor 
are they the precise shapes, that stems assume, but 



Fig. 109. 



Fig. 110. 



Fig. 111. 




Eounded. 
Fig. 112. 



Square. 




Compressed. 
Fig. 113. 



Five-sided. 




Half-rouuded. 
Fig. 114. 




Four-angled. 



their forms will most commonly be found to approach 
very nearly to some of these outlines. 



76 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

EXERCISE XX. 
Color, Surface, Size, Structure* 

Color.— Stems may be spotted, striped, green, 
brown, red, or purple. Surface. — The surface of a 
stem, like that of leaves, may be smooth, rough, shiny, 
dull, hairy, or glabrous. Size. — Stems may be high 
or low, slender or thickened. 

Structure. — To iind out the structure of a stem, 
you must break it, and observe first whether it is 
hollow or solid. Next see if it is thready : these 
threads are woody fibers, and, when present, they 
help to make the stem hard and tough. It is then 
called a Woody stem ; but, if it is soft and brittle, 
it is an Herbaceous stem. 

The hairs of plants are Arachnoid, when veiy 
long, and loosely entangled, so as to resemble cobweb. 
Bearded, when the hairs are long, and placed in tufts. 
Downy, or Pubescent, when the hairs form a short, 
soft layer, which only partly covers the skin. Hairy, 
when the hairs are rather longer, and more rigid. 
Villous, when very long, very soft, erect, and straight. 
Velvety, short, soft, very dense, but rather rigid, 
forming a surface like velvet. 

There are six questions that you have found it 
very easy to answer about stems. Here they are, put 
together in the form of a stem-schedule. If you can 
remember all these questions, and answer them one 
after another, as the questions of the leaf-schedule are 
answered in leaf-descriptions like that of Fig. 97, on 
page 70, there will be no need of using the schedule. 
But it is very well to use it for a few days, till the 
points to be observed are all fixed in the mind. 



THE STEM. 



77 



Schedule Eighth, of the Stem. 



Shape? 




Attitude ? 




Color? 




Surface ? 


' 


Size ? 




Structure ? 





EXERCISE XXI. 
Underground Stems. 

In your study of stems you must have seen many 
like Fig. 100, made up wholly of nodes, so crowded 
upon each other that the leaves they bear seem to 
grow out of the ground. You have now to learn that 
there are various kinds of underground stems, and 
before you can find them you must know the differ- 
ence between a stem and a root. 

Pull up a buttercup, or any common plant, and 
rinse away the dirt from the roots. Compare the tip 
of a rootlet with the tip of a branch. Are they 
alike? Do you find the roots made up of nodes and 
internodes ? Are there buds on the roots ? Pull up 



78 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



another plant and compare the root and stem in the 
same way. Do you find the same differences ? Com- 
pare the root and stem of a great many plants, and 
see if the differences you first noted are not always 
fonnd. 

You may perhaps find parts of plants under ground 
that bear buds or are a sort of bud ; but they are not 
common, and they are not roots. By-and-by, when 
you have studied the mode of growth of plants, you 
will find further differences between root and stem, 
but for the present you may know stems from roots 
by the presence of buds upon them. 

Look at a potato that has begun to sprout. Can 
it be a root ? It is a thickened portion of an under- 
ground stem, and botanists call it a Tuber. In Fig. 

Fig. 118. 




118 you can see the nodes of this underground stem. 
Observe that roots are given off at these nodes the 
same as in the creeping stem shown at Fig. 104. 
Look for examples of roots given off from the nodes 
of stems that grow only above ground. 



THE STEM. 



79 



Other forms of underground stems are — 

The CoKM (Fig. 119). — Here the base of the stem 



Fig. 119. 




Corm. 



is abruptly thickened just below the surface of the 
groundj so as to resemble a tuber. 

The Bulb (Fig. 120). — A mass of thickened, scale- 
like leaves growing from a flat or conical base. From 
the under side of this base, roots are given off. 

Fig. 121 shows a vertical section of the bulb. 

The Rhizoma. — A stem more or less covered by 
the soil, from the nodes of which buds are given off 
above and roots below (Fig. 122). 

Pull up a growing onion and find its root and 
stem. 



80 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 
Fig. 120. Fig. 121. 





Bulb. 



Section of Bulb. 



Find the root and stem of a growing hyacinth ; 
of a lily ; of sweet- flag, peppermint, solomon's-seal, 
artichoke. 



Fig. 122. 




Khizoma. 



If you can not get at these plants at once, be sure 
to study their roots and stems when you do find them. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE ROOT. 



EXERCISE XXII. 
Tap-Boots and Fibrotis Hoots. 

FiioM underground stems we pass to the study of 
roots. The different forms they assume are easily 
remembered, and when you have studied them in 
connection with the following two exercises of this 

Fig. 124. 





Tap-root. 



Fibrous Root. 



short chapter, you will be able to give a full and 
precise description of the root, stem, and leaves of a 
plant. They are the vegetative organs of plants, and 



82 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



were so named to distinguish them from flowers, the 
reproductive organs of plants. 

The first question about the roots of a plant is, 
Are they fibrous (like Fig. 124), or has the plant a 
tap-root ? 

A tap-root is a continuation of the stem down- 
ward, which may branch, as seen in Fig. 123, or bear 
fibers, or be nearly smooth, as in Figs. 125, 126, 127. 



Fig. 125. 



Fig. 126. 



Fig. 12T. 






Conical Koot. 



Fusiform Eoot. 



Napiform Koot. 



When there is no such downward growth from 
the stem, but in its place you find a mass of fibers 
like Fig. 124, you describe the plant as having fibrous 
roots. 

Some of the different shapes of roots have spe- 
cial names, which are commonly used in describing 
plants. The chief forms of tap-root are — 

CoN^icAL (Fig. 125). — Where the root is seen to be 
cone-shaped. 



THE ROOT. 



83 



Spindle-shaped, or Fu'siform (Fig. 126). — En- 
larged in the middle, and tapering toward the ends ; 
and 

Turnip-shaped, or Na^piform (Fig. 127). — Plants 
with such tap-roots as these have very short stems, 
made up of nodes alone. (See Fig. 100.) 

Some of the most common forms of fibrous roots 
are here shown. 

In MoNiL^iFORM EooTS (Fig. 128) some of the 



Fig. 123. 



Fig. 129. 





Moniliform Root. 



Fasciculated Eoot. 



hbers have numerous small swellings, that succeed 
each other so as to look like a striner of beads. 

In Fasciculated Eoots (Fig. 129) the fibers be- 
come swollen along their length, and look like a 
bundle of fusiform roots. 

When some of the rootlets of fibrous roots become 



84 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

fleshy and enlarged, taking the form shown in Fig. 
130, they are called Tubercular Roots. 

It is easy to see that the moniliform root is only a 
fibrous root, in which regular portions of the fibers 
have become swollen. When all these swellings unite 
in one continuous enlargement, they form a fascicu- 
lated root (Fig. 129). When the swellings are short- 
ened and globular (Fig. 130), they form tubercular 
roots. 

With the help of these figures and their explana- 

Fis. 130. 




Tubercular Root. 

tions, you should use your best judgment to decide 
what is the variety of tap or fibrous roots to which 
the plant you are studying belongs. 

It is also well to note whether the root is small or 
large compared with the stem and branches ; whether 
it is loosely or firmly planted in the soil ; and whether 
it spreads near the surface or grows downward. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE INFLORESCENCE. 

Inflorescence. — The way flowers are placed upon 
plants is called their mflorescence. 



EXERCISE XXIII. 
Solitary and Clustered Inflorescence, 

When only one flower grows npon a flower-stem 
the inflorescence is said to be solitary, Fig. 131. 



Fig. 131. 



Fig. 132. 




Solitary Inflorescence. 



Clustered Inflorescence 



86 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

When several flowers grow from the same flower- 
stem the inflorescence is clustered, Fig. 132. 

Point out upon the chart all the flowers that are 
clustered. 

Gather all the plants you can find that are in 
blossom. Separate the clustered from the solitary 
flowers, and they will be ready for study. You 
should first learn the names of the parts of a flower- 
cluster. These are given in the next exercise. 



EXERCISE XXIV. 
Varts of the Inflorescence, 

You will find the parts pointed out for you in 
the pictures. 

Pedun'cle. — The stem of a solitary flower, or of 
a flower-cluster. 

Ka^chis. — The continuation of a peduncle, from 
which flowers branch off. 

Bracts. — The small leaves of a flower-cluster on 
the peduncle, or rachis. 

Involu^cre. — A whorl of bracts. 

Ped^icel. — One of the flower-stems in a cluster. 

Bract'lets. — Very small leaves growing upon 
pedicels. 

Recep'tacle. — The top of a peduncle, from which 
several flowers start together. 

Can you find upon the chart any flower-clusters 
with an involucre ? Can you find bracts or bractlets 
in any of the clusters of the chart ? 

Point out and name all the parts of the flower- 
clusters you have gathered. 



TEE INFLORESCENCE. 



87 



Ftg. 133. 




-j-p. Peduncle. 



—Peduncle. 



Fig. 134. 



Fig. 135. 




Eachis. 




Pedicel. 



Involucre. 



88 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XXV. 



Attitude of Inflorescence. 



When a flower or a flower-cluster is upright, like 
Figs. 132 and 133, it is described as e7'ect 

When the peduncle bends over, as shown in Fig. 
131, it is said to be nodding. 

When flowers hang down, as in Fig. 136, they 
are said to hQ ^pendulous. 



Fig. 136. 




Pendulous, 



Prepare an inflorescence schedule with the two 
questions shown in schedule ninth. Answer these 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 89 

questions for each of yonr specimens. Describe the 
leaves, as is done for Fig. 136, and then give a stem- 
description by answering the six questions of the 
stem-schedule, as you see has been done here. 

Schedule Ninth, describing Fig. 186. 



Farts ? 


^xli^c/ancce, O/^/ozi/ei. 


Attitude ? 


.^enc/ui&u:^. 



Leaves. — Opposite, simple, petiolate, exstipulate, 
feather-veined, irregularly dentate, ovate-acuminate, 
green, smooth. 

Stem. — Round, shghtly bending, reddish brown, 
smooth, slender, solid, woodv. 



EXERCISE XXYL 
Varieties of Inflorescence. 

Head. — A more or less globular cluster of flow- 
ers, sessile upon the receptacle. Fig. 137. 

Spike. — A cluster of flowers, sessile upon a ra- 
chis. Fig. 138. 

Spa^dix. — A spike with a thick rachis, and cov- 
ered around by a single large leaf, or bract, called a 
smthe^ Fig. 139. 

Ament, or Catkin. — A sjc>ilce^ with sessile bracts 
among its flowers. It grows on trees and shrubs, 
and falls off after a while. Fig. 140. 

The Raceme is a flower-cluster, where the flowers 



90 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 137. Fig. 133. Fig. 189. 




Gai^in. 



Fig. 142. 




Spadix, 
Fig. 141. 

^-^"^ 

■ ( 

Kacemo. 




Glomerule. 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 



91 



grow upon pedicels of about equal leugtli along the 
racliis, Fig. 141. 

A Glomeeule is formed by nearly sessile clusters 
of flowers in the axils of opposite leaves, Fig. 142. 

The CoEY]siB is a flower-cluster, with a short ra- 
chis, the lower pedicels of which are lengthened, so 
that the cluster is flat at top, Fig. 143. 



Fig. 143. 



Fig. 144. 





Corymb. 



Umbel. 



An Umbel has no rachis, and the pedicels are of 
nearly equal length, Fig. 144. 

A Compound Raceme, or Panicle, has a long 
rachis, and the flowers grow upon branches of the 
pedicels. When such a cluster is thick and cone- 
shaped, it is called a Thyrse^ Fig. 145. 

A Compound Corymb is a corymb with the flow- 
ers growing upon branches of the pedicels, Fig. 146. 

A Compound Uivibel has a second umbel, or um- 
bellet, upon each pedicel. Fig. 147. 

Most of the clusters pictured in this exercise are 
represented as without bracts, that differences in their 
modes of branching may be more easily compared. The 
pictures represent certain styles of flowering, and each 



92 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



of these styles varies very much in nature. You will 
lind umbels, panicles, corymbs, etc., very unlike each 
other. Great differences among the clusters of a va- 



FiG. 145. 



Fig. 146. 





Compound Eaceme. 



Compound Corymb. 



riety may be occasioned by the presence or absence 
of bracts, by their forms and colors, by the length, 
stiffness, and ever-varying positions of peduncles and 




Compound Umbel. 



pedicels, as well as by differences in the form of re- 
ceptacles. The various sorts sometimes run together 
in many different ways. You may find a flower- 
cluster resembling two different varieties so much 



THE INFLORESCENCE. 



93 



that you will have to combine the names of the two 
in order to name it properly; as, for instance, a 
corymbose-panicle, a panicle of heads, or a spicose- 



FlG. 148. 




umbel. When you can not name the variety, say so, 
and keep the instance in mind until you understand 
it. Can you name the varieties of inflorescence pic- 
tured upon the charts ? 



94 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Schedule Tenth, describing Fig. 148. 



Parts? 

1 




Attitude ? 


S'lec^. 


Yariety ? 


1 



Leaves. — Alternate, simple, sessile, exstipulate, 
feather-veined, serrate, oval-acute. 

Stem. — Erect, round, herbaceous. 

Root. — Fibrous. 

There are some things about the inflorescence, 
easily understood and described, that have not been 
named in the schedule, and, that they may be noted 
in future descriptions, we call attention to them here. 

When many flowers are crowded upon a rachis, or 
receptacle, the cluster is said to be dense ; but when 
they are few and scattering, it is said to be loose. 

The bracts of a cluster may be very numerous, or 
they may present peculiarities that a child can easily 
describe — such, for instance, as relate to shape or color 
— or they may form an involucre at the base of the 
cluster, and these points might well be included in a 
description. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE FLOWER. 



EXERCISE XXYII. 
rarts of the Flotver. 

The study of forms in the flower will give you 
more to observe than all the other parts of the plant 
put together. There are a good many different parts 
that go to the making of a complete flower. And the 
names of all these parts must be learned before you 
can understand what is said about them, or write 
down what you find out yourself. This, then, will be 
your first business. If you begin at the outside of a 
flower (see the one shown, pulled apart, in Fig. 149), 
you come first upon the calyx. Next within the ca- 
lyx is the corolla. Inside of that are the stamens, and 
in the center of the flower you find the pistil. 

The Eecep^tacle is the top of the peduncle, more 
or less swollen, from which the fiower growls. 

The Ca'lyx is the outer circle of green fiower- 
leaves. 

The CoROL^LA is the inner circle of delicately-col- 
ored flower-leaves. 

The word Per'ianth is a name given to both cir- 
cles of flower-leaves when they are so nearly alike as 
not to be separable into calyx and corolla. See Fig. 
155. 



96 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Sta^mens. — Slender, thread-like parts next inside 
the corolla. 

Pis^TiL. — The central part of the flower inside the 
stamens. 

Fig. 149. 



Pistil. 



Stamens. 




When there is but one whorl of flower-leaves, 
whatever its color, it is called a calyx. 

What is the receptacle of a flower? What is the 
calyx ? What is the corolla ? What is the part in the 
center of the flower called ? What surrounds it ? 

Look at the picture of half of a large flower in the 
upper left-hand corner of Chart One. It is a butter- 
cup, but the picture is much larger than a real flower, 
and all its parts can be plainly seen. Point out the 
receptacle. Point out and give the names of the other 
parts of this flower. 



THE FLOWER. 



97 



Gather as m:iny flowers as you can find, and point 
out and name the parts that compose them. Look 
out for flowers that have a perianth instead of calyx 
and corolla. 



EXERCISE XXVJII. 

Varts of the Calyx and Corolla, 

Each of the parts of the flower shown in Fig. 149 
is called a floral whorl. A whorl of little leaves makes 
up the calyx. Another whorl of delicate leaves forms 
the corolla. The stamens are in the form of a whorl, 
and so are the parts of the pistil. The parts of these 
whorls have their names, and the very best w^ay to 
learn all these names, so as to know exactly what they 
stand for, is to write them as you have to do in using 
the flower-schedule. Prof. Henslow, the author of 
this schedule, made it in the shape of four columns, 
and the use of each column was written above it. The 
first one is for the names of the chief parts of flow- 
ers, and is headed Names. As there are four of these 




Fig. 151. 



Sepal. 



Sepal. 



Calyx. 




chief parts, this column is divided into four parts. 
The upper part is for the calyx, and has the word '' ca- 



98 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANF. 



lyx " written in it, as seen in schedule eighth. The 
next division of this column is for the corolla, as you 
see. The divisions for stamens and pistil will be 
given when we have learned more about the naming 
of the calyx and corolla. 

The leaves of the calyx, Fig. 150, are pulled apart 
and named in Fig. 151, and you are told what a sepal 



Fig. 152. 



Fig. 153. 




Petal 



Petal. '^ 



Corolla. 



\ ) Petal. 




Petal. 



is. The same is done for the corolla in Figs. 152 and 
153. Schedules eight and nine give the names of 
these parts in the two flowers they describe. 



Fig. 154. 



Fig. 155. 





Se'pal. — One of the leaves of the calyx. 
Pet'al. — A leaf of the corolla. 



THE FLOWER. 



99 



The second cokimn of the flower schedule, vou 
see, is headed I^umber, and contains the number of 
parts that form the calyx and corolla. 

Begin in this way at once to write descriptions of 
the calyx and corolla of each of your flowers. 



Schedule Eighth, 

DESCKIBING FiG. 154. 



Schedule Ninth, 

DESCRIBING FiG. 155. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 




Calyx ? 


5. 

5. 




Corolla ? 





Names of Parts. 



Perianth ? 



No. 



^ 



EXERCISE XXIX. 
Kinds of Calyx* 

Haying used schedules till the names of the parts 
that compose the calyx, corolla, and perianth are well 
learned, you are ready to begin the use of the third 
column of the schedule. 

This column of Prof. Henslow's schedule is for 
writing down whether or not the parts of a floral 
whorl are grown together. This is very important ; 
and when you have found out, there is a very long 
word used by botanists to express the fact. For in- 



■■■■■■■ 



100 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



stance^ a calyx like that shown in Fig. 156 lias its 
sepals separate. They are not grown together ; but, 
instead of using these words to express the fact, bot- 
anists say they are polysepalous^ which means the 
same thing. Again, if the sepals are grown together, 
however shghtly, as in Fig. 157, they are said to be 
gamosejpalous^ which means the same thing. See 
schedule tenth. 



Fig. 156. 



Fig. 157. 





Polysepalous Calyx. Gamosepalous Calyx. 

A PoLYSEP^ALOus Calyx has its sepals distinct from 
each other, so that each one can be pulled oflf separately. 

A Gamosep^alous Calyx has its sepals more or 
less grown together by their edges, so that, if you 
pull one, the whole calyx comes off. 



EXERCISE XXX. 

The study of corollas brings forward a good many 
new words to describe the new forms. You must 
learn these words in the same way that you have 
learned what has gone before. Take time to study all 
the flowers you can find. Compare their corollas with 
the pictures and definitions that follow, and when you 



THE FLOWER. 



101 



have found one which is, definition and all, like the 
corolla you are studying, use its name in the schedule 
description. 

Kinds of Corolla and JPeriantho 

A PoLYPET^ALous CoROLLA has its petals distinct 
and separate from each othei', so that each one can be 
pulled off without disturbing the others. Fig. 158. 



Fig. 15S. 



Fig. 159. 





Polypetalous Corolla. 



Gamopetalous Corolla, 



A Gamopet^alous Corolla has its petals more or 
less grown together by their edges, so that if you 
pull one the whole corolla comes off. Fig. 159. 

A Eegijlar Calyx, Corolla, or Perianth, has 
all its parts of the same size and shape, Fig. 160. 

An Irregular Calyx, Corolla, or Perianth, has 
some of its parts unlike the others in size or form. 
Fig. 161. 

Observe first whether the sepals of a calyx, the 
petals of a corolla, or the leaves of a perianth, are 
grown together or not. Sometimes they are so slight- 
ly united that you must look closely to find it out. 
Be cautious about calling a corolla polypetalous until 



102 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY 

Fig. 160. 





Eegular Gamopetalous Corolla. 



Irregular Gamopetalous Corolla. 



you have looked at a good many different specimens 
of it. Do not gness. 

You can count the petals of gamopetalous corollas 
by their marks of union. 

ScnEDULE Tenth, describing Fig. 159. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Calyx ? 


4. 


^uamo^^e/^a/otf:^, ieaucai. 


Corolla? 


4. 


^/.anw/ie^acof/^, ieau/ai. 



THE FLOWER. 



103 



A PoLYPHYL^LOus Perianth has its leaves entirely 
distinct and separate from each other. 

A Gamophyl''lous Perianth has its leaves more 
or less grown together by their edges. 

In the schedule will be seen a space where the 
forms of sepals and petals shonld be recorded in the 
same terms used to describe leaves. 



EXERCISE XXXI. 
Stamens and Pistil* 

You must now observe the parts of the stamens 
and pistil, and learn their names. 

Parts of Stamens, 

FiL^AMENT. — The stem-like part of a stamen, Fig, 



162 
ment 



Another. — The thickened oblong head of a fila- 



FiG. 162. 




Anther. 



Pollen. 



Filament. 



Pol^len. — The dust, or powder, seen npon the 
anther. 

To study the stamens and pistil of flowers, select 






104 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



large, well-developed specimens. Meadow-lilies and 
many other common flowers have large stamens, and 
all the parts of their pistil can be plainly seen. 

JFarfs of the JFistil^ 

OVary. — The lowest part of the pistil, containing 
the seeds, Figs. 163, 164, 165. 

Style. — The slender, stem-like part of the pistil 
next above the ovary. 



Fig. 163. 



Fig. 164. 



Fig. 165. 



-- StioTiiia. 



■ Style. 





Ovary. 



Four Carpels. 

Stig^ma. — The top of the pistil. 

Car'pel. — One of the divisions, or cells, of the 
ovary. 

It is in old, withered flowers that you should look 
for the carpels. The ovary continues to grow after 
the flower has disappeared, and reaches perfection in 
the ripened fruit. 

Point out and name the parts of the magnifled 
stamens shown upon the chart. Can you flnd the 
ripened carpels of the pistils of flowers on the chart ? 
Point out and name the parts of the stamens and pis- 
til of the flowers you have collected. 



THE FLOWER. 



105 



EXERCISE XXXII. 
Mow to describe Stamens and Pistils, 

The way to get familiar with the names used in 
the last exercise is to use them over and over again 
in describing flowers. 

Schedule eleventh has added to it the new ques- 
tion, Stamens ? Write underneath it the name of the 
parts that compose a stamen of your flower. Count 
the number of stamens, and write it down, unless they 
are too numerous, when you will use the character cx), 
signifying many. Write ''free," when they are not 
grown together ; and " coherent," when they are grown 
together. 

When the filament is absent, write " sessile '' after 
anther. To describe the filaments, observe whether 
they are long or short, slender or thick, flat or 
round, distinct or grown together. 

Fig. 166. 




Observe whether the anthers are one-lobed or 
two-lobed, that is, whether they are in two parts or 



106 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



pieces ; and note also whether they are oblong, round, 
curved, straight, large or small, longer or shorter than 
the filaments, distinct or grown together. 

The question Pistil ? is also added to the schedule, 
and is to be answered in the same way as the ques- 
tions Perianth ? and Stamens ? First write the name 
of its parts underneath, and then find out, if you can, 
the number of carpels that compose the ovary. It is 
sometimes quite difficult to do this, but it is well al- 
ways to make the effort. When the number of car- 



FiG. 16T. 



Fig. 168. 




pels can not be made out directly, count the styles, 
and, if these are grown smoothly together, then count 
the lobes of the stigma. It is very seldom that this 
part of the pistil is so coherent that the lines of union 
are invisible. You can often, in this way, find out 
the number of carpels in a pistil, when every other 
means fails. 



THE FLOWER. 



107 



Schedule Eleventh, describing Figs. 166 168. 



Names of Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Periantli ? 




C/o/u/iAyU6C{&, ienfutai. 


<^eaveS. 


6. 




Stamens % 


^ 


(^^ee. 


G^^c/cz??ient. 




C//e?2r/eL 


Q^n^^L 




CJ^/onrh 


Pistil ? 




, 


^ai/ie/). 


3. 




fL7/?^/e. 




Gt' Hna^ coucnin. 


^/ia??ia. 




Q/niee^/ovec/, 



EXERCISE XXXIII. 

Kinds of JPolupetalous Corollas, Hegalar and Ir^ 

regular. 

Before yon begin with this exercise, be sure to 
have all the different kinds of flowers that you can 



Fig. 169. 



Fig. ITO. 




Limb. 



-Claw. 




Limb. 



Claw. 



108 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOT^VNY. 



get. First of all, observe the parts of petals. They 
are pointed out and named in Figs. 169 and 170. 

Levib. — The upper, and usually the broadest and 
thinnest, part of a petal. 

Claw. — The lower part of a petal, by which it is 
joined to the receptacle. 

The kinds of regular polypetalous corollas are 
shown and named in the following pictures : 



Fig. 171. 



Fig. 172. 





Cruciferous. 



Caryophyllaceous. 



A Crucif'erous Corolla has four petals growing 
in the shape of a cross, Fig. 171. 

A Caryophylla^ceous Corolla has five petals. 



Fig. 173. 



Fig. 174. 





Rosaceous. 



Liliaceous. 



THE FLOWER. 



109 



having each a long, slender claw and a spreading limb. 



Fig. 172. 



A KosA^cEous Corolla has five petals, with spread- 
ing limb and short claw. Fig. 173. 

A LiLiA^cEous Perianth has six leaves, bending 
away, as seen in Fig. 174. 




Fig. 176. 




Papilionaceous Corolla. 



Some kinds of irregular polypetaloiis corollas 
have a special name. Fig. 175 is an example. 



Fig. 177. 




Banner. 



Wings. 



Keel. 



The Papiliona^ceous Corolla has five petals, ar- 
ranged like Fig. 177. The one nearest the stem (the 



no 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



upper. Fig. 175) is called the lanner ; the two side 
ones are called wings^ and the lower ones the heel. 



Fig. 178. 




Fig. 1T9. 




Learn to distinguish the banner, wings, and keel 
of papilionaceous corollas, and note the diJBferences of 
their forms in different kinds of flowers. You can 
write such observations as these upon the back of the 
schedule. Do not hurry along to new lessons while 
the forms of corollas shown in this and the follow- 
ing exercises are strange to you. Gather all sorts of 
flowers and describe them carefully. 

There are many other varieties of poly petal ous 



THE FLOWER. HI 

irregular corollas, which are described generally as 
anomalous. There is an interesting tribe of plants 

Fig. 180. 




known as orchids, which present many anomalous 
forms of corolla; Fig. 179 is an example, Fig. 180 
being a separate flower from the same plant. Anoma- 
lous flowers should be further described as polypeta- 
lous or gamopetalous, for they occur among both these 
forms. 



EXERCISE XXXIV. 

Kinds of Gamopetalous Corollas , Hegnlar and Ir» 

regular^ 

Before you go any further with your study of the 
forms of corollas, you must look more closely at the 
PARTS of such ones as are shown in Figs. 181 and 182. 

Tube. — That part of the corolla, w^hether long or 
short, in which the petals are united together, as 
shown in the figures. 

Limb, or Border. — The upper part of the corolla, 
where the petals are not united. 

Throat. —The opening into the tube. 



112 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Corolla-Tubes may be long or short, slender or 
swollen, tapering or cylindrical, or with a pouch, or 
sack, on one side. 

Fid. 181. Fig. 182. 

Thi'oat.^ 
.Border, or Limb. ^-^^ f ^^ BorJer. 




Tube. 




Tube. 



The Limb may be narrow or broad, erect or spread- 
ing ; and 

The Throat may be open or constricted, hairy or 
smooth. 

Note these features in describing gamopetalous 
corollas. 

The following are the principal kinds of regular 
gamopetalous corollas : 

Tu^BULAR. — A tubular corolla is one in which the 
tube spreads little or none at the border. Fig. 183. 



Fig. 183. 



Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 






Tubular. Urceolate. liotate. 

Ur^ceolate. — A corolla is urceolate when the tube 
is swollen in the middle, with a narrow opening like 
an urn, as in Fig. 184. 



THE FLOWER. 



113 



Eo'tate, or Wheel-shaped Corollas have a short 
tube, and flat, spreading border. Fig. 185. 

FuN^NEL-FORM. — When the corolla-tube is small 
below, and enlarges gradually to the border, as in 

Fig. 186. 

SalVer-form. — When the long, slender tube of a 



Fig. 187. 



Fig. 18^. 




Funnel-form. 



Salver-form. 



Campanulate. 

corolla ends abruptly in a flat, spreading border, as 
seen in Fig. 187. 

CampanVlate. — Bell-shaped corollas are said to 
be campanulate. Fig. 188. 

Irregular gamopetalous corollas are named as fol- 
lows : 

La'biate. — In labiate corollas the limb has the 
appearance of lips. Labiate corollas are of two hinds, 
personate and ringent, as shown in Figs. 189 and 190. 

Per^sonate. — With the throat closed. 

EiN^GENT. — With the throat open. 

A LiG^ULATE, or strap-shaped, corolla, is one which 
appears as if it were formed by the splitting of the 
tube on one side. Fig. 191. 



114 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Anom^alotjs. — All other irregular gamopetalous 
corollas, as Figs. 192 and 193, are called anomalous. 



Fia. 191. 



Labiatr Corollas 




Anomalous. 



Anomalous. 



THE FLOWER. 



115 



In describing corollas, the terms cruciferons, lili- 
aceous, tubular, etc., may now be used in place of 
poljpetalous, gamopetalous, regular and irregular, as 
the new terms include these characters, along with 
others, more limited and special. To sa)^, for example, 
that a corolla is cruciferous^ is to say that it is poly- 
petalous and regular, and also to state the number 
and position of its petals. To say that a corolla is 
strajy-shajped^ implies that it is gamopetalous and ir- 
regular, while giving its special form. 



EXERCISE XXXY. 
CroivnSf Spurs^ and Nectaries. 

The Corona, or Ceown, is a scale-like structure, 
Figs. 194, 198, on the inner surface of corollas, at the 
summit of the claw, or tube. 



Fig. 194. 



Fig. 195. 





A Spue is a tubular prolongation of a petal or 
sepal. Figs. 195 and 199. 



116 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 196. Fig. 197. 





Nectary. 



Nectary. 



A Nectary is a little gland on the claw of a petal 
that secretes a sugary liquid. In Fig. 196 these 



Fig. 199. 




Corolla with Crown. 



Spurred Calyx and Corolla. 



glands are naked, while in Fig. 197 the little gland is 
covered by a scale. 



EXEKCISE XXXYI. 
Sj/inmetry of Flowers. 

Gather a variety of flowers, and before you begin 
their study look carefully at the pictures and defini- 
tions of this exercise. 

Count the sepals shown in Fig. 200. Count the 



THE FLOWER. 



117 



petals. Count the stamens. Observe the two-lobed 
stigma of the pistil. Has each of the floral whorls the 
same number of parts? Then it is a symmetrical 



Fia. 200. 



Fig. 201. 





EiDary Symmetry. 



flower. And it would still be symmetrical if the 
number of sepals, or petals, or stamens, or carpels, 
were twice as many, three times as many, and so on. 
Count the parts in the floral whorls of Fig. 201. 



Fig. 202. 



Fig. 2'8. 





It has three sepals, you say, and three petals ; but there 
are six stamens and six carpels. Is this flower sym- 
metrical ? 

A symmetrical flower is one having the same num- 
ber of parts in each of its whorls, or, if not the same, 
then twice as many, three times as many, or any mul- 
tiple of the prevailing number. 



118 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Does Fig. 202 represent a symmetrical flower? 
Are the parts symmetrical in Fig. 203 ? 

When the parts of a flower are arranged in twos, 
or multiples of two, the symmetry is said to be dimer- 
ous or hiiiary. Fig. 200. 

When the parts of the floral whorls are in threes, 
or multiples of three, the symmetry is triineroiis or 
ternary. Fig. 201. 

When the parts are in fours, the symmetry is te- 
tramerous or quaternary. Fig. 202. 

When the parts are in fives, the symmetry is pen- 
tameroics or quinary. 

If you have the botanical charts, look at the mag- 
nified flowers represented on them, and point out the 
symmetrical ones, naming the kind of symmetry they 
exhibit. Then examine your living specimens. These 
will, of course, vary with the season. We w411 sup- 
pose, for example, that you have the pea, morning- 
glory, violet, portulaca, buttercup, Saint-John's-wort, 
hollyhock, potato-blossom, evening primrose, lily, etc. 
Decide which are symmetrical and which are unsym- 
metrical, placing the two kinds apart. Re-examine 
the symmetrical ones, and tell which have binary sym- 
metry, which ternary, which quaternary, and which 
quinary. 



EXERCISE XXXYII. 
Complete and Incomplete Flowers* 

The collection of flowers that in the previous ex- 
ercise were separated into symmetrical and unsym- 
metrical ones, may now be rearranged, separating the 



THE FLOWER. 



119 



complete from the incomplete, according to the fol- 
lowing definitions : 

Complete Flowers consist of calyx, corolla, sta- 
mens, and pistil (Fig. 201). 



Fig. 20: 




Complete Flower. 



Incomplete Flowers have one or more of the 
floral whorls absent (Figs. 205 and 206). 

Find upon the charts examples of complete and 
incomplete flowers. 



Fio. 205. 



Fig. 206. 





Incomplete Flower. 



Incomplete Flower, 



If any of the flowers present strange appearances, 
let them pass ; by-and-by, after further study, you can 
put them where they belong. 



120 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XXXYIII. 
Essential Organs and Protecting Organs, 

The chief purpose of the flower is the production 
of seed ; but, to this end, some of its parts are more 
necessary than others : for example, the action of 
both stamens and pistil is needed in the formation of 
seeds, while they are often produced without the pres- 
ence of either calyx or corolla. The stamens and pis- 
til are therefore called the essential organs of flowers ; 
and, as the calyx and corolla cover and nourish these, 
they have been called t\iQ jprotecting organs. 

Point out upon the charts the protecting organs 
of flowers. Point out the essential organs. Do you 
find both sets in all the flowers represented ? 

Examine your collection of flowers, and point out 
in each specimen the essential organs and the protect- 
ing organs. 



EXERCISE XXXIX. 

Uichlamyd' eons, MonocJilamyd'eoiiSy and Achla- 
tngd'eotis Flotvers. 

When the protecting organs, calyx and corolla, 
are present in a flower, it is said to be dicJilamydeous 
(Fig. 207). 

When there is but one whorl of protecting organs, 
whatever its color or texture, it is called a ealyx^ and 
the flower is monochlamydeous (Figs. 208 and 209), 

A flower destitute of protecting organs is achla- 
mydeous (Fig. 210). 

Achlamydeous flowers are said to be nahed. 



THE FLOWER. 

Fig. 207. 



121 




Dicblamydeous Flower. 



After observing the pictures, and reading the defi- 
nitions of this exercise, you may find upon the charts 
all the pictures of dichlaniydeous flowers ; of mono- 



FiG. 203. 



Fig. 209. 



Fig. 210. 






MonocMamydeous Flower. Monochlamydeous Flower. Achlamydeous Flower. 

chlamydeous flowers ; of achlamydeous, or naked 
flowers. Then look over your living specimens again, 
putting the dichlamydeous ones by themselves ; the 
monochlamydeous ; the achlamydeous. Pay no at- 
tention to the doubtful instances ; there will be fewer 
and fewer of these as your observations proceed. 



122 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XL. 
Verfectf Imperfect j and Neutral Flowers. 

Pictures, illustrating this and the following exer- 
cise, may be found upon the charts. Living speci- 
mens of the kinds described will, perhaps, not often 
occur in the collections made for study. But if you 
keep a constant lookout for them you will be likely 
to get them before a long time. 

A Perfect Flower has both the essential organs 
(Fig. 211). 

An Imperfect, or Diclinous, flower has but one 
of the essential organs. If it have stamens only, it is 
said to be staminate (Fig. 212) ; if pistil only, it is said 
to be pistillate (Fig. 213). 

Neutral Flowers are destitute of both stamens 
and pistil (Fig. 214). 

When imperfect flowers are staminate (Fig. 212), 
they are said to be sterile^ because they never produce 



Fig. 211. 





Fig. 213. 




A Perfect Flower. 



Imperfect Flowers. 



seed. Sometimes they are spoken of as male flowers. 
When imperfect flowers are pistillate (Fig. 213), they 



THE FLOWER. 



123 



are said to be fertile^ because they bear seed. They 
are also called female flowers. 

Perfect flowers, like Fig. 211, are said to be her- 
majyhrodite^ because both sexes are united in the same 
individual. 

Fin. 214. 




A Neutral Flower. 



Observe well and remember the following charac- 
ters ; they occur very often in writing about plants : 

A perfect flower is indicated thus, g . 

A staminate, sterile, or male flower, thus, ($ . 

A pistillate, fertile, or female flower, thus, ? . 

Look over the charts for examples of perfect, im- 
perfect, and neutral flowers. 



EXEECISE XLI. 

MonmciouSf Dlceclous, and Folygamous Plants, 

When both staminate and pistillate flowers grow 
upon the same plant (Fig. 215), it is said to be monoO' 
cious. 



124 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. 215. 




A Monoecious Plant. 



Fig. 216. 



Fig. 217. 




Pistillate Flower, from 
Catkin (Fig. 217). 




Female Catkin of a Dicscious Plant 



THE FLOWER. 



125 



When staminate and pistillate flowers grow upon 
separate plants, such plants are said to be dioecious. 
Fig. 216 represents a pistillate flower from the female 
catkin (Fig. 21Y). Fig. 219 represents a staminate 



Fig. 218 




Fig. 219. 



(D m 



Male Catkin of a Dioecious Plant. 



staminate Flower, from 

Catkin (Fig. 218). 



flower from the male catkin (Fig. 218). These cat- 
kins grow upon different trees; so the willow from 
which they were taken is dioecious. 

When staminate, pistillate, and perfect flowers are 
all found upon the same plant, it is polygamous. 

Point out upon the charts examples of monoecious, 
dioecious, and polygamous plants. 

Let the pupil answer the following questions con- 
cerning each flower of his collection : Is your flower 
symmetrical or unsymmetrical ? Is it complete or 
incomplete ? Is it dichlamydeous, monochlamydeous, 
or achlamydeous ? Is it perfect or imperfect ? Did 
it grow upon a monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous 
plant? 



CHAPTEE VI. 
THE SEED. 



EXEEOISE XLII. 
JParts of the Seed. 

Wr now pass to another class of observations, in 
whichj besides noting new parts of plants, you will 
also have to watch the changes which take place in 
those parts. 

Prepare for the study of seeds by planting all 
the kinds you can get that are large enough for easy 
examination. 

The seeds of the pumpkin, squash, four-o'clock, 
bean, pea, apple, Indian corn, oats, and barley, are 
good examples for the purpose. Plant two or three 
dozens of each sort, one inch deei:>, in a box of soil or 
sawdust, which must be kept warm and moist. Put 
the different kinds in rows by themselves, and mark 
each row, so that, when you want any particular one, 
you can get it without mistake.* 

You should also be provided with a blank-book in 
which to write the results of study. Such a note-book 
is easily made by twice folding enough sheet-paper to 
allow a page to each kind of seed you have planted. 

* If pupils can not get time to prepare for these exercises 
out of school-bours, they should be encouraged to do it during 
school-time. 



THE SEED. 



127 



"Write the name of a kind, as pea, oat, etc., on each 
successive page, till all are inserted. 

When Yonr seeds have soaked for a day or two in 
the wet earth, take a bean from the box and compare 
it with one that has not been planted. 

How has^it changed in appearance ? 

Cut it in two and see w^hether, like a piece of chalk, 
it looks alike outside and inside, or whether the parts 
are unlike. 

Has it a skin or shell that jou can loosen ? 

Take a second bean from the box, cut carefully 
aronnd it, and try to peel off the outer part. 

Seed-coat, or Integ^ument. — The skin or shell 
around the outside of a seed. 

Body, Kernel, or Nu^cleus. — The substance 
within the seed-coat. 

Compare your specimen with Fig. 220. 
Can you separate the seed-coat from the body of 
the bean as it is seen to be separated in the picture ? 



Fio. 220. 



Seed- i 
coat. 




Body. 



Now take a pea from your box and see if it is 
made up of parts. 

Has it a seed-coat? Is there a kernel or body 
within the seed-coat? 

Try a pumpkin-seed. Compare the coat of a 
pumpkin-seed with that of the pea or bean. 



128 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Are they alike in thickness ? in hardness ? in color? 
in transparency? Name all the differences you see 
between them. 

In the same way, take up and examine, one after 
another, some seeds from each of the rows. Find 
their parts, and compare the parts of one kind of seed 
w^ith those of another kind. 

If you are not able at first readily to separate a 
seed into distinct portions, do not hastily conclude that 
it is without them. Let it lie in its w^arm, wet bed a 
while longer, and then try again. ^ 

Now write in your note-book just what you have 
discovered about the parts of seeds. For instance : 
if at the top of the first page you have written hearij 
on the line beneath you now write the question. 
Parts ? and the answer which you have found to this 
question — thus : 

Parts f Seed-coat, Body, Coat, thin^ shinny ; 
or, on the page devoted to the apple seed, you write : 
Parts f Seed coat. Body, Goat^ woody ^ Irown^ 
thin ; 
or, on the page for pumpkin-seed, you say : 

Parts ? Seed-coat. Body, Coat,, shelly,, thiclc^ 
limber, 

* Much that is important in their experiments children will 
fail to see, and thej will fancy thej see much that does not ex- 
ist. Their omissions, misinterpretations, and difficulties can be 
dealt with in many ways, hut a desire on the part of the teacher 
for nicety of experiment and accuracy of statement should 
never lead to discouraging criticism. To keep the child happily 
busy with his growing plants is the main thing, and all degrees 
of awkwardness and imperfection in childish performance should 
be tolerated. 



THE SEED. 129 

Write on all the pages of j^our note-book in this 
way, and keep it at hand for reference. 



EXERCISE XLIIL 
Parts of the JBody^ or Kernel. 

When yon have caref ullyvexamined all the seeds 
you planted to find the parts that make them up, you 
will be ready to study one of these by itself. After 
taking off the skin or coat of a seed, look closely at 
the body of it. Begin with a well-soaked seed of In- 
dian corn. 

Compare it with Fig. 221. 

Is your seed narrower at one end than the other ? 

Fig. 221. 



Are the two sides of it alike ? Is there a little pointed 
or rounded figure to be seen on one side ? 

Remove the skin and look carefully at the figured 
side of your specimen. Can you see a thick, lumpy 
body like the one marked a in the picture? 

Try, with a dull knife or the finger-nail, to pry 
this lump out of its bed. If the seed is soaked to its 
center, you can easily do this. Look carefully at the 
hole it leaves. Is not its surface smooth ? Do you 
see any spot where the lump seems to have been 



130 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

grown to the other part, and to have broken away 
when you took it out ? 

Compare the parts yon have got with Fig. 222. 

Ftg. 222. 




Albumen. Embryo. 

Em'bryo. — The yonng plant contained in a seed. 
Albu'men, En^dosperm. — The material in which 
the embryo is imbedded. 

What names are given to the two parts of the 
body of a seed of Indian corn ? 

Which is the embryo in your specimen ? Which 
is the albumen ? 

Now examine the kernel of a pea or bean. Can 
you separate this into two parts without breaking it 
somewhere ? 

Compare it with Fig. 223. 

Fig. 223. 



Embryo. 



What name is given to the entire kernel ? What 
part, found in the Indian corn, is missing here ? 

Look at the body of a seed of four-o'clock and see 
how many and what parts it has. Look also at the 
body of a pumpkin-seed. 




THE SEED. 131 

Examine the kernel of each of the kinds of seed 
you have planted, and observe which consist of embryo 
alone, and which are part embryo and part albumen* 

At the same time, write in your note-book, as 
before, the results of observation. For example, to 
the question. Parts of the body ? write for Indian 
corn. Parts of hody f Albumen. Emhryo, For 
Pea. Parts of hody f Eiiibryo. 



EXERCISE XLiy. 
Parts of the Embryo. 

Take out of the soil a bean which has begun to 
sprout. Remove the seed- coat, and let the parts of 
the embryo separate, as seen in Figs. 224 and 225. 

Fig. 224. 
riuraulc. Eadicle. 



Cotyledon. 




, Cotyledon. 

Cotyledon. 




Cotyle'doist. — The bulky first leaf or leaves of the 
embryo — more or less formed in the ripening of the 

seed. 

« 

Rad^icle. — The lower end of the embryo, from 
which the root proceeds. 

Plu^mule. — The first — the terminal bud — the up- 
per end of the embryo. 

GEKMiNA^TiOisr. — The beginning of growth in a seed. 



132 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Read the names of tlie parts of the embryo given 
in Figs. 221 and 225. Look at the definitions of these 
words. Compare your specimen with the figures, and 
point out its cotyledons ; its radicle ; its plumule. 
Handle your embryo with care, for it breaks easily. 
Has its radicle begun to put forth roots ? 

Take from your box a vigorous seed of Indian 
corn in which the roots have begum to grow, and 
compare it with Fig. 226. 



Fi:> 226. 



riumule. 




Separate the embryo and albumen, and, if it has 
grown as much as the one pictured above, you may 
easily find the cotyledon, the plumule, and the radicle. 

When you are sure that you have found the radi- 
cle or root-end of your embryo, that you know which 
part is cotyledon, and whicli plumule, take another 
seed of the same kind, but less grown — one where the 
root-end of the embryo has scarcely begun to swell — 
and see if you can find the parts. 



THE SEED. 133 

Fig. 227 represents such an embryo with the parts 
shown. 

Point out and name the parts of the embryo of an 
apple-seed ; of a pumpkin-seed ; and of each of your 

Fig. 227. 
: Plumule. 



Cotyledon, f A \ w Piumulo. 

Eadicle . - ■ - ■ -^^ir 



specimens successively, as in former exercises. Which 
of your seeds has the largest plumule before growth 
begins ? Have you any in which the embryo has at 
first no plumule at all ? 

Have you failed to find cotvledons in anv em- 
bryo looked at ? "^ 

As the number of your observations increases, and 
their character varies, you w^ill see more and more 
the value of your notes recording them. 

To the question of this exercise. Parts of Embryo ? 
you give the answers, as before, from direct observa- 

* If these experiments with seeds are made as early as April, 
in this climate, the children who have made them will be ready 
for more extended observations when planting in the garden 
begins. Most garden-seeds are too small to be separated into 
parts by young children. But, when growth begins, their parts 
enlarge, and a child, who has before studied larger seeds, will 
be able to identify the radicle, cotyledons, and plumule, without 
difficulty. In the kitchen- garden, a universal appendage of 
country-houses, the sprouting of the radish, onion, beet, parsnip, 
lettuce, tomato, carrot, cabbage, cucumber, etc., will furnish an 
excellent continuation of the study of seeds. 



134 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



tion of the structure of the embryo itself. If some 
seeds give uncertain appearances, wait till growth 
has proceeded a little further before you decide about 
them. By premature judgments j^ou may fill your 
note-book with errors which you w^ill be compelled to 
erase. 



EXERCISE XLY. 
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons* 

A MoN^ocoTYLED^oNous cuibryo has one cotyledon 
or seed-leaf (Fig. 228). 



Fig. 223. 



Fig. 229. 




Cotyledon. 



Cotyledon. 




Cotyledon. 



A DicoTYLED^oNors embryo has two cotyledons 
or seed-leaves (Fig. 229). 

These are long, hard words, hard to pronounce, 
and hard to spell. But they are very necessary words 
in describing seeds. You can soon learn them. 

Go over the seeds you have planted, and point out 



THE SEED. 135 

the dicotyledons. Show the two thick leases that were 
packed within the seed-coat when the seed ripened. 

Are any of your seeds monocotyledonous ? If so, 
which ? 

Figs. 228 and 229 were drawn from plants that 
had grown a little. When your seeds have also grown 
a little, compare them one after another with these 
pictures. Look at your young bean-plant. Find the 
first node above the cotyledons. How many leaves 
are growing there ? how many at the first node of the 
corn-stem ? how many in each of your growing seeds ? 

Observe w^hether the cotyledons in all cases rise 
into the light and air. Observe whether all cotyle- 
dons are shaped alike, and also whether they resem- 
ble the true leaves of the plant. Write carefully in 
your note-book the decision you have made in this 
exercise about each of your seeds. You will have 
occasion to refer to it as soon as your plants have put 
forth perfect full-grown leaves.^ 

* A word of caution may not here be amiss. There is danger 
that the sympathy of teachers with bright and interested pupils 
will lead them to tell in advance what children can find out for 
themselves by continued observation. The connection between 
number of cotyledons and venation is an instance of such temp- 
tation. This relation is an impressive one, and prominent in 
classification ; but there is no need of haste in getting to it. 
By-and-by, when the leaves of his growing plants are well devel- 
oped, by the aid of his note-book, the pupil might be put in the 
way of discovery, by asking him to make a list of his monocoty- 
ledons, and to give their venation in each case. Let him do the 
same with his dicotyledons. He will now see a perfect uni- 
formity of relation in a few cases, and will be curious to know 
if it is everywhere constant. He will thus arrive at the induc- 
tion bj his own observation. 



CHAPTEE VII. 
WOODY PLANTS. 



EXERCISE XLYI. 
Their Different Kinds, 

What do you name all the soft, fragile plants that 
die down to the ground in winter?^ Is there any 
name for all woody plants? Do you know of any 
woody plants that are not trees ? If so, what do you 
call them ? What is the difference between a young 
tree and a bush ? Between a bush and a shrub ? 

The following pictures and definitions are given 
to help you in distinguishing one group of woody 
plants from another. After carefully looking them 
over, you should go through the streets and the fields, 
and whenever you see a woody plant, decide whether 
it is a tree, shrub, bush, under-shrub, or vine. If you 
take with you a companion who is interested in the 
same pursuit, it will be all the better. 

Although trees vary much in size, height, and 
shape, and are often not nearly so tree-like as the one 
represented by Fig. 230, yet it is not easy to mistake 
them when full grown. If you are doubtful whether 
a particular plant is a tree or shrub, remember that, 
when a full-grown woody plant, less than fifteen feet 
high, is slender, and perhaps has several stems start- 

* See page 76. 



WOODY PLANTS. 



137 




^■-....f.;^ 



Tree. 



ing together at or near the ground, as seen in Fig. 
231, it is called a shrub. 

When a full-grown, woody plant, with several 
stems, is not more than five feet high, it is a bush. 




Shrub. 



138 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

And when only two or three feet high, whatever 
its shape, it is called an under-shrub. Slender, 
woody plants that can not hold themselves up, but 
depend on other objects for support, or trail along 
the ground, are called vines. 

Besides this separation of woody plants into groups 
depending upon size and shape, they are again divided 
into two sorts, called Evergreen and Deciduous. 

F!G. 232. 



Busli. 

Evergreen trees, shrubs, etc., keep their foliage 
all the year round. 

Decid'uous trees, shrubs, etc., lose their foliage in 
winter. 

So that in winter it is very easy to tell Evergreens 
from Deciduous plants. Look carefully at the foliage 
of Evergreens, and see if it resembles that of Decidu- 
ous trees. 



WOODY PLANTS. 139 

EXERCISE XLYir. 

Parts of a Tree. 

Trunk. — The main stem of a tree. 
Head. — The branching top of a tree. 

Observe the varying lengths of the trunks in the 
trees about you. Measure the size around their trunks 

Fig. 233. ^ 



Head. 



Trunk. 




at different heights from the ground. Judge as well 
as you can at what distance from the ground the 
lowest limb starts from the trunk. Then test your 
judgment by measuring. 

If you call the branches that start from the trunk 
prinfiary^ the branches which these put forth may be 
called secondary branches, and those given off next 
would be tertiary branches. In observing tlie heads 
of trees, fix your attention upon a primary branch, 
and see if yon can find these divisions. Observe 
whether the tertiary branches bear still other branches. 



140 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Caudex OR Stock. — An imbranclied trunk pro- 
duced by the terminal bud alone (Fig. 234). 



Fig. 234. 



Crown. 



Caudex. 




Crown. — The collection of leaves at the top of a 
caudex. 



WOODY PLANTS. 



141 



EXEKCISE XLYITL 
Farts of a TriinJc, 

In living trees there grows each year a ring of 
wood between the old wood and the bark, and by 
counting the rings you can tell the age of the tree. 



Fig. 235. 




,.Bark. 



nth. 



^ Wood. 



Fig. 235 is a picture of the end of a tree-trunk. A 
dark and light streak, taken together, represent a 
yearly ring of wood. Can you tell how many years 
it was in growing ? When you see saw-logs, find out 
their ages by counting the rings. Observe whether 
these annual layers are always of the same thickness. 
Notice whether the wood of a tree, from the center 
to the circumference, is all of one color. 



142 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



EXERCISE XLIX. 

Kinds of Trunk • 

An Indefinite Trunk is one in wliich the trunk 
runs through to the top, the terminal bud growing 
on from year to year with more vigor than any of the 
branches. 



Fig. 236. 



Fig. 237. 




IndejQnite Trunk. 



Definite Trunk. 



In a Definite Trunk the stem breaks up into 
branches, and so disappears, as seen in Fig. 237. 

Have apple-trees definite trunks ? 

Have pine-trees definite or indefinite trunks ? 



WOODY PLANTS, 



143 



EXERCISE L. 
Questions about Trees. 

What is the attitude of the trunk in Fig. 238 ? 
What is the form of the head ? 



Fig. 288. 






/^^fl^^^^i^^:. ^r^-^]^^"^' 





144 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

Fig. 239. "Fig. 240. 












Which are the longest — the upper, lower, or mid- 
dle branches ? 

What is the direction of the branches ? 



WOODY PLANTS. 145 

Are the branches much subdivided ? 

What proportion of the trunk is below the lowest 
branches ? 

Observe whether field-trees and forest-trees differ 
in this respect. 

Answer the same questions in regard to Fig. 239. 
Fig. 240. Fig. 241. Fig. 242. 

Which of these pictures represent definite trunks ? 

Which indefinite trunks ? 

If the head of a tree is cone-shaped, which of its 
branches are longest ? 

If the head is round, which are longest? 

Mention all the differences you see between Figs. 
239 and 240. 

Which of the pictures shov/s the most compact 
head ? 

Are its branches more subdivided than the others? 

When you are somewhat acquainted with the 
woody plants of your neighborhood, find among th^m 
an evergreen and observe it carefully throughout the 
year. Describe, in your note-book, its appearance in 
winter. Watch it in spring, and note the changes 
produced on it by the warm weather. See if any of 
its foliage ever falls ; or if it changes color in the 
course of the year. Watch for its fiowers and fruit. 
Observe the appearance of its bark, and whether it 
looks the same in different parts of the tree. 

Make and record similar observations upon a de- 
ciduous tree. Describe its winter aspect. What time 
does it put forth leaves ? When does it flower ? Does 
its foliage change in color after it is full grown ? If 
so, how ? When does it fall ? Compare the bark of 



146 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Fig. 241. 




WOODY PLANTS. 



147 



Fig. 242. 




'■^^'r;y:.;fi/\iLz. 



its trunk with that of its twigs. ^ Compare its bark 
wdth that of an evergreen. 

In the same way watch the progress of a frnit-tree, 

* Twigs. — The remote ends of the branches. 



148 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

after carefully observing its appearance before growth 
in the spring begins. 

Every bnsh, shrub, and tree passes each year 
through a succession of striking changes, which very 
few people ever observe. Let it be your purpose to 
see them all. 



CHAPTER YIII. 
FRUIT. 



EXERCISE LI. 
What is Fruit? 

Pluck from the vine of the pea or bean several 
pods of different ages, from one still enveloped by the 
flower, to one that is full grown. Compare the young- 
est pod yon have gathered with Fig. 163. What part 
of the pistil becomes the pod ? Compare it with Fig. 
164. How many carpels has the ovary of the bean 
or pea ? 

Observe the contents of this pod. 

What name is given to these little soft bodies ? 

Answer. — OVules. 

Compare these ovules with the contents of a full- 
grown pod. What are these full-grown, ripe bodies 
called ? 

What name is given to pod and contents taken 
together ? 

A nswer. — Fruit. 

What is every ovary and its contents ? 

Answer. — It is fruit. The fruit of a plant is its 
ripened ovary. 

By what words would you distinguish the young 
from the mature ovary ? 

Examine all the flowers that are just fading, and 
look for the ovules in their unripe fruit. Find the 



150 TEE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

ovules of a young apple. Of an unripe cucumber. 
Of an unripe tomato. Of any unripe fruit you see 
growing witliin reach. 

Observe the same plants when the fruit is ripe, 
and compare the aspect of the seeds with the appear- 
ance the ovules presented. 

Try to count the carpels in all the ovaries you ex- 
amine. Observe whether they are grown together or 
not. Count the carpels shown in Fig. 168. Do you 
see the three white lines passing outward from the 
center in this picture? Should you judge that the 
carpels from which this picture was taken were grown 
together? Search, among plants that are going to 
seed, for ovaries resembling this one. 



EXERCISE LIT. 
Sutures and Dehiscence* 

Look among the ripe and dry pea and bean pods, 
upon the dry vines, for those that have begun to open. 
Examine the edges of the separate parts. Do you 
see something like a joint where the two parts were 
united ? Compare them with Figo 243. 

Dehis'cence. — The opening of a seed-vessel at 
maturity. See Fig. 243. 

SuT^URE. — A seam. The line along which dehis- 
cence occurs, and so permits the escape of the seeds. 

Yen'tral Suture. — The inner suture of a carpel. 
The one looking toward the center of the flower. In 
Fig. 243, it is the suture along which the ovules are 
attached. 



FRUIT. 



151 



DoK^sAL SuTUKE. — Tlie outer suture. See Fig. 243. 
What name is given to those joints in ovaries at 



Ftg. 243. 




which they open when the seeds are ripe ? How many 
sutures has a bean-pod ? To which suture are the 
beans attached ? 

When an ovary opens spontaneously, and thus 
Hberates its seeds, it is called a dehiscent oyary. 
When it does not so open, it is an ikdehiscent ovaey. 

Are there any indehiscent ovaries among the fruits 
of the garden or farm ? 

Mention all the dehiscent ovaries you can think of. 

Again turn to Fig. 168, and compare it with Fig. 
244. 

Obtain the ripe fruit of Ikis [flower-de-luce], and 
compare it with the pictures. Is it a dehiscent or 
indehiscent fruit ? Can you find sutures at which the 
carpels open ? What do you call the suture at which 
the seeds are attached ? What do you call the line 
in the outer wall of each carpel, opposite the ventral 
suture ? 



152 



THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 



Base. — The bottom of tlie ovary. The end at- 
tached to the peduncle. Figs. 244 and 245. 



Fig. 244 




Apex. 



Base. 



A'pEX.— The top of the ovary. Fig. 244. 
Dissip'ime:n^ts. — The partitions between the cells 
of syncarpons [carpels united] ovaries. Fig. 245. 



Fig. 245. 




Farietcs. 



Base. 



Pari'etes. — The wall of the ovary. Fig. 245. 
Ax' IS. — The central part of the ovary where the 
ventral sutures join together, a. Fig. 245. 



FRUIT. 



153 



EXERCISE LIII. 
l^arts of Carpels., 

Yalyes. — The parts into which carpels separate 
by dehiscence. Fig. 246. 

Placen^ta. — The cord along the ventral suture, to 
which the ovules are attached. It is the "string" 
that pulls off in preparing string-beans for cooking. 
pi, Fig. 246. 

Find the placenta in full-grown bean and pea- 
pods. Find it in little ones where you can just see 

Fig. 246. 




the ovules. Observe the little stem by which the 
ovules and seeds are attached to the placenta. By 
what name is it known ? 

Answer. — It is called the funic'ulus. 



QUESTIONS UPON ANY OVARY. 
Is it dehiscent or indehiscent ? 



154: THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

IF DEHISCENT 

How many carpels compose it ? 

Are the carpels grown together ? 

Point out the sutures. 

Which is dorsal and which ventral ? 

Find the valves. The placenta. The funiculus, 

IF INDEHISGENT 

Can you count the carpels ? 
Look for the ovules or seeds. 
Point to the funiculus. The placenta. 
Point out the base of the ovary. The apex. The 
axis. The parietes. The dissipiments. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS. 



EXERCISE LIV. 
Hoot-action and Leaf-action. 

Cover a tumbler with a piece of card-board, cut 
as seen in Fig. 247. Pull up by the roots a young 

Fig. 24T. 




growing plant of any kind, and slip it root downward 
into the hole made in the center of the card-board. 



156 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTAXY. 

Pour into the tumbler water enough to cover the 
roots, and expose the leaves to sunshine. 

Into another tumbler of water with a similar 
cover put a second plant, leaves downward, as shown 
in Fig. 248, and expose it to sunshine. 

Fig. 243. 



After a few hours, compare the two plants. How 
has it fared with the one that had its roots in water ? 
What is the appearance of the other ? 

Let us now find, if we can, what was going on in 
the plant that kept up its freshness. 

Arrange a glass of water with a cover of slit card- 
board as before. Place in it a plant, root downward, 
and cover the leaves w^ith a glass, as shown in Fig. 
24:9. Let it stand for a time in the sunshine. In a 
little while look at the inverted tumbler. What do 



THE ACTIONS OF PLANTS. 



157 



you see upon its inner surface ? Where did it come 
from ? What had the roots to do with it ? 

Invert a tumbler in this way above the roots of a 
plant placed as in Fig. 248. Do you, in this case, get 
moisture on the inside of the inverted tumbler? 
Can you not make leaves do the work of roots ? 

Strip a plant of its leaves and place it under a 
glass as in Fig. 249, with the roots in water. Place 



Fig. 249> 




it in the sun as before and see if any moisture gathers 
upon the glass. 

What can be done by a plant with leaves, that 



158 THE FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. 

can not be done by a plant without leaves ? What, 
then, is one use of leaves ? 

The action of the root in sucking up water is 
named absorption. 

The action of leaves in giving ofi water is called 

TRANSPIRATION. 

The roots absorb. The leaves transpire. 

There are two more words that these experiments 
illustrate. The first of these is the word okga]^. An 
organ is any part of a plant or animal that does a 
particular kind of work different from that done by 
other parts. 

Is the root an organ ? What do your legs do that 
no other part of your body can do ? Are they organs ? 
Is your tongue an organ ? Are leaves organs ? 

The other word to be explained is function. Or- 
gans have functions. Tlie function of an organ is 
what it does. What is the function of your eye ? 
What is the function of a bird's wings ? What func- 
tion of roots have you discovered by your experiments ? 
What is one of the functions of leaves ? 

Remember that the particular work any organ 
does is its function. 



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cloth, each, 60 

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The Old gives place to the New. 



The sxiperiority of Appletons' Readers has heen so 
ivell established, and so ivjiiversally aehriowledged, 
that their adoption in schools not losing them has 
becojne a question of expediency rather than of cor)%- 
parative merit. Among the latest announcements 
of the progress made in this direction is that 

APPLETONS' READERS 

have been adopted for uniform use in the Public 
Schools of Chicago by a vote o/ 13 to 1. 



APPLETONS' READERS are in harmony with modern thought. 
APPLETONS' READERS have advanced the standard of education everj^where. 
APPLETONS' READERS have inaugurated an improved grade of text books. 
APPLETONS' READERS are designed to stimulate correct mental growth. 
APPLETONS' READERS are indorsed by all progressive educators. 
APPLETONS' READERS are universally popular. 
APPLETONS' READERS have reached a sale of nearly 5,000,r00 copies. 
APPLETONS' READERS are in successful use in every State in the Union. 



Read -what is said of them by some of the well-knoivn instructors 
who have tested them: 



" Appletons' Readers have been u?ed 
in our schools for six months. As we 
use almost all the Readers published 
In this country, we have good opportu- 
nities for knowing the respective mer- 
its of each kind, and I unhesitatinglv 
place your Readers amonof the very best. '''' 
—Francis W. Parker, Super'mtendent of 
Schools, Quincy, MassachuseUs. 

"I am greatly pleised with your 
Readers. Among their many merits, 
that which most impresses me is the 
susgestiveness pervading the entire ^e- 
Tie'^y—Isabelle Parsels, Superintendent 
Training Department^ Normal College, 
New York, City. 

" After usinsf Appletons' Reader? one 
year in our public schools, and watching 



the eflfect with the greatest care, I am 
happy to state that they have fully 
equaled, if not surpassed, my most san- 
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perintendent of Public Schools, Lawrence, 
Kansas. 

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of type, and the elegance of the illus- 
trations deserve special mention. But 
it is in the matter of these books, and 
the manner of its presentation, that 
their especial excellence lies,'' — P?o- 
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For introductory terms and further information, address 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, New York, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco. 



AI HISTOEICAL READER 

FOR THE USE OF 

CLASSES IN ACADEMIES, HIGH SCHOOLS, AND 
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 

By HENRY E. SHEPHERD, M. A., 

SUPERINTENDENT OP PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND. 



12mo. Cloth, $1.25. 

This work consists of a collection of extracts representing the purest his 
torical literature that has been produced in the different stages of our literary 
development, from the time of Clarendon to the era of Macaulay and Prescott, 
its design "being to present to the minds of young pupils typical illustrations of 
classic historical style, gathered mainly from English and American writers, and 
to create and develop a fondness for historical study. 

The book is totally devoid of sectarian or partisan tendencies. The bio- 
graphical and critical notes are just suflScient to stimulate inquiry and independ- 
ent research. The intention of notes and comments is to suggest new lines of 
thought, and to develop a taste for more extended investigation. 

"This book is one of the most important text-books issued within our recol. 
lection. The preface is a powerful attack upon the common method of teaching 
history by means of compendiums and abridgments. Professor Shepherd has 
'long advocated the beginning of history teaching by the use of graphic and 
lively sketches of those illustrious characters around whom the historic interest 
of each age is concentrated.' This volume is an attempt to embody this i.dea in 
a form for practical use. Irving, Motley, Macaulay, Prescott, Greene, Fronde, 
Momrasen, Guizot, and Gibbon are among the authors represented; and the sub- 
jects treated cover nearly all the greatest events and greatest characters of time. 
The book is one of indescribable interest. The boy or girl who is not fascinated 
by it must be dull indeed. Blessed be the day when it shall be introduced into 
our higli schools, in the place of the dry and wearisome ' facts and figures ' of the 
* general history' I ''—Iowa Normal Monthly. 

"The most vivid of historical studies from the hands of the greatest masters 
of historical description. It is a school-book which deserves a decided suc- 
cess."— Baltimore Sun. 

*' The idea of the book is excellent—to teach history by a sound method ; not 
by abridgments or compendiums, but by taking the student at once to the best 
historical works and selecting with judgment the masterpieces of the greatest 
writers. Among the selections we note many of the finest passages of the most 
eminent hmiovia.ns.'''— Wilmington (N. C.) Morning Star. 



For sale by all booksellers ; or sent by m,ail^ post-paid, on receipt of price. 



New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 8, & 5 Bond Street. 



A GEOGRAPHICAL READFx<, 



A COLLECTION OF 



Geographical Descriptions and Explanations^ from the 
best Writers in English Literature. 

Classified and arranged to meet the wants of Geographical Students, 

By JAMES JOHONNOT. 



12mo, cloth $1.25. 



It is original and unique in conception and execution. 

It is varied in style, and treats of every variety of geographical 
topic. 

It supplements the geographical text-books, and, by giving ad- 
ditional interest to the study, it leads the pupil to more extensive 
geographical reading and research. 

It is not simply a collection of dry statistics and outline descriptions, 
but vivid narrations of great literary merit, that convey useful in- 
formation and promote general culture. 

It conforms to the philosophic ideas upon which the new educa- 
tion is based. 

Its selections are from well-known writers and standard au- 
thorities. 

It is handsomely bound, and embellished with numerous illustra- 
tions, giving views of many interesting objects and noted scenery. 

It is an attractive and instructive book for the home libraries of 
both young and old readers. 



"Mr. Johonnot has made a good book, w^hich, if judiciously used, will 
stop the immense waste of time now spent in most schools in the study 
of geography to little purpose. The volume has a good number of ap- 
propriate illustrations, and is printed and bound in almost faultless style 
and taste," — National Journal of Education, 



A sample copy^ for examination^ will he forwarded^ post-paid^ to any 
teacher or school-officer^ on receipt of 1^ cents. 



New York: D. APPLETOX & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. ^ 



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